The Analects of Confucius

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 “Cultivated persons seek harmony but not sameness.”
~ Confucius  (Analects 13. 23).

Harmony (和)

Confucian value of harmony:

子曰：“君子和而不同，小人同而不和。”
See uwaterloo.ca/community-and-professional-education/blog/post/confucian-values-and-characters-series-harmony



Further References

Waley, A.. (2012). The analects of confucius. The Analects of Confucius

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9780203715246
DOI URL
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Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, J.. (1999). The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. Classics of Ancient China

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevA.72.012329
DOI URL
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Tan, C.. (2015). Beyond Rote-Memorisation: Confucius’ Concept of Thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00131857.2013.879693
DOI URL
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Woods, P. R., & Lamond, D. A.. (2011). What Would Confucius Do? – Confucian Ethics and Self-Regulation in Management. Journal of Business Ethics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10551-011-0838-5
DOI URL
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Confucius, & Lau, D. C.. (1979). The analects (Lun yü). Penguin classics.

Chen, P., Tolmie, A. K., & Wang, H.. (2016). Growing the critical thinking of schoolchildren in Taiwan using the Analects of Confucius. International Journal of Educational Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.002
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Brooks, E. B., & Brooks, A. T.. (1997). The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors. Translations from the Asian Classics

Li, C. C. N.-D. dur fil pau pau global china maig 07 encomanat F. abril 2008. (2007). An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism – By JeeLoo Liu. Journal of Chinese Philosophy

Plain numerical DOI: doi:10.1111/j.1540-6253.2007.00432.x
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Sim, M.. (2013). CONFUCIAN VALUES AND HUMAN RIGHTS. The Review of Metaphysics

Kim, H. K.. (2003). Critical Thinking, Learning and Confucius: A Positive Assessment. Journal of Philosophy of Education

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/1467-9752.3701005
DOI URL
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Hasebe, Y.. (2003). Constitutional borrowing and political theory. International Journal of Constitutional Law

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/icon/1.2.224
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Cheang, A. W.. (2000). The master’s voice: On reading, translating and interpreting the analects of confucius. Review of Politics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/S0034670500041693
DOI URL
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Romar, E. J.. (2004). Managerial harmony: The Confucian ethics of Peter F. Drucker. In Journal of Business Ethics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1023/B:BUSI.0000033613.11761.7b
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Change blindness

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Change blindness is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it. For example, observers often fail to notice major differences introduced into an image while it flickers off and on again.


Further References

Kentridge, R. W.. (2015). Change Blindness. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences: Second Edition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.51024-1
DOI URL
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Simons, D. J., & Rensink, R. A.. (2005). Change blindness: Past, present, and future. Trends in Cognitive Sciences

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2004.11.006
DOI URL
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Masuda, T., & Nisbett, R. E.. (2006). Culture and change blindness. Cognitive Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1207/s15516709cog0000_63
DOI URL
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Simons, D. J.. (2000). Current approaches to change blindness. Visual Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/135062800394658
DOI URL
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Rensink, R. A.. (2010). Attention: Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness. In Encyclopedia of Consciousness

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/B978-012373873-8.00006-2
DOI URL
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Beck, D. M., Rees, G., Frith, C. D., & Lavie, N.. (2001). Neural correlates of change detection and change blindness. Nature Neuroscience

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/88477
DOI URL
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Levin, D. T., Momen, N., Drivdahl, S. B., & Simons, D. J.. (2000). Change blindness blindness: The metacognitive error of overestimating change-detection ability. Visual Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/135062800394865
DOI URL
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Cavanaugh, J.. (2004). Subcortical Modulation of Attention Counters Change Blindness. Journal of Neuroscience

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3724-04.2004
DOI URL
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Simons, D. J., & Chabris, C. F.. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1068/p281059
DOI URL
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Simons, D. J., & Ambinder, M. S.. (2005). Change blindness: Theory and consequences. Current Directions in Psychological Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00332.x
DOI URL
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Galpin, A., Underwood, G., & Crundall, D.. (2009). Change blindness in driving scenes. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.trf.2008.11.002
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Simons, D. J., Chabris, C. F., Schnur, T., & Levin, D. T.. (2002). Evidence for preserved representations in change blindness. Consciousness and Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1006/ccog.2001.0533
DOI URL
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JOHANSSON, P., HALL, L., & SIKSTRÖM, S.. (2008). FROM CHANGE BLINDNESS TO CHOICE BLINDNESS. PSYCHOLOGIA

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2117/psysoc.2008.142
DOI URL
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(WHO), W. H. O.. (1972). Change the Definition of Blindness. World Health Organization

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-1958-9
DOI URL
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O’Regan, J. K., Rensink, R. A., & Clark, J. J.. (1999). Change-blindness as a result of “mudsplashes”. Nature

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/17953
DOI URL
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Landman, R., Spekreijse, H., & Lamme, V. A. F.. (2003). Large capacity storage of integrated objects before change blindness. Vision Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00402-9
DOI URL
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Davies, G., & Hine, S.. (2007). Change blindness and eyewitness testimony. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3200/JRLP.141.4.423-434
DOI URL
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Sela, L., & Sobel, N.. (2010). Human olfaction: A constant state of change-blindness. Experimental Brain Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2348-6
DOI URL
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Henderson, J. M., & Hollingworth, A.. (2003). Global transsaccadic change blindness during scene perception. Psychological Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/1467-9280.02459
DOI URL
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Fernandez-Duque, D., & Thornton, I. M.. (2000). Change detection without awareness: Do explicit reports underestimate the representation of change in the visual system?. Visual Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/135062800394838
DOI URL
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Nelson, K. J., Laney, C., Fowler, N. B., Knowles, E. D., Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F.. (2011). Change blindness can cause mistaken eyewitness identification. Legal and Criminological Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1348/135532509X482625
DOI URL
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Coup d’état

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A coup d’état also known simply as a coup, a putsch, golpe, or an overthrow, is an illegal and overt seizure of a state by the military or other elites within the state apparatus.[1]

A 2003 review of the academic literature found that the following factors were associated with coups:

  • officers’ personal grievances
  • military organizational grievances
  • military popularity
  • military attitudinal cohesiveness
  • economic decline
  • domestic political crisis
  • contagion from other regional coups
  • external threat
  • participation in war
  • foreign veto power and military’s national security doctrine
  • officers’ political culture
  • noninclusive institutions
  • colonial legacy
  • economic development
  • undiversified exports
  • officers’ class composition
  • military size
  • strength of civil society
  • regime legitimacy and past coups.[18]

Bertrand Russel – The scientific outlook

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Publication date 1954
Publisher George Allen And Unwin Limited

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The structure of power

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Vitali, S., Glattfelder, J. B., & Battiston, S.. (2011). The network of Global corporate control. PLoS ONE

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025995
DOI URL
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Heemskerk, E. M., & Takes, F. W.. (2016). The Corporate Elite Community Structure of Global Capitalism. New Political Economy

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/13563467.2015.1041483
DOI URL
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Testing Theories of American Politics

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When the preferences of economic elites and the stands of organized interest groups are controlled for, the preferences of the average American appear to have only a minuscule, near-zero, statistically non-significant impact upon public policy.
(Gilens & Page, 2014, p.575)

www.cambridge.org/core/journals/perspectives-on-politics/article/testing-theories-of-american-politics-elites-interest-groups-and-average-citizens/62327F513959D0A304D4893B382B992B


Further References

Gilens, M., & Page, B. I.. (2014). Testing theories of American politics: Elites, interest groups, and average citizens. Perspectives on Politics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/S1537592714001595
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Supernormal stimuli

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A supernormal stimulus or superstimulus is an exaggerated version of a stimulus to which there is an existing response tendency, or any stimulus that elicits a response more strongly than the stimulus for which it evolved.

For example, when it comes to eggs, a bird can be made to prefer the artificial versions to their own,[1] and humans can be similarly exploited by junk food.[2] The idea is that the elicited behaviours evolved for the “normal” stimuli of the ancestor’s natural environment, but the behaviours are now hijacked by the supernormal stimulus.

British academic Nigel Spivey demonstrates the effect in the first episode of the 2005 BBC documentary series How Art Made the World to illustrate neuroscientist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran‘s speculation that this might be the reason for the grossly exaggerated body image demonstrated in works of art from the Venus of Willendorf right up to the present day.

In biology

In the 1950s, Konrad Lorenz observed that birds would select brooding eggs that resembled those of their own species but which were larger, and Niko Tinbergen, following his extensive analysis of the stimulus features that elicited food-begging in the chick of the herring gull, constructed an artificial stimulus consisting of a red knitting needle with three white bands painted around it; this elicited a stronger response than an accurate three-dimensional model of the parent’s head (white) and bill (yellow with a red spot).[3]

Tinbergen and his students studied other variations of this effect. He experimented with dummy plaster eggs of various sizes and markings finding that most birds preferred ones with more exaggerated markings than their own, more saturated versions of their color, and a larger size than their own. Small songbirds which laid light blue grey-dappled eggs preferred to sit on a bright blue black polka-dotted dummy so large they slid off repeatedly. Territorial male stickleback fish would attack wooden floats with red undersides—attacking them more vigorously than invading male sticklebacks if the underside were redder.[1]

Lorenz and Tinbergen accounted for the supernormal stimulus effect in terms of the concept of the innate releasing mechanism; however this concept is no longer widely used.[citation needed] The core observation that simple features of stimuli may be sufficient to trigger a complex response remains valid, however.

In 1979, the term supernormal stimulus was used by Richard Dawkins and John Krebs to refer to the exaggeration of pre-existing signs induced by social parasites, noting the manipulation of baby birds (hosts) from these, to illustrate the effectiveness of those signals.[4]

In 1983, entomologists Darryl Gwynne and David Rentz reported on the beetle Julodimorpha bakewelli attempting to copulate with discarded brown stubbies (a type of beer bottles) studded with tubercules (flattened glass beads).[5] This work won them the 2011 Ig Nobel Prize in biology.[6]

Another example of this is the study made by Mauck and colleagues, where they evaluated the effects of a plant pathogen named cucumber mosaic virus or CMV. This study showed that the aphids preferred the healthy plants but are still attracted by the infected plants, because of the manipulation of volatile compounds used by plants to attract them.[7]

Manipulation by parasites

In 2001, Holen et al., analyzed the evolutionary stability of hosts manipulation through exaggerated signals. Their model indicated that intensity of parasitic signals must be below a threshold to ensure acceptance from host. This threshold depends directly on the range of parasitism.[8]

For them, the only evolutionary stable strategy is when the host accepts all signs of the parasite with optimal intensity, which must be below the threshold; if this is not the case, the host can use these signals to identify the parasite.[8]

In psychology

Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett argues that supernormal stimulation govern the behavior of humans as powerfully as that of other animals. In her 2010 book, Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose,[9] she examines the impact of supernormal stimuli on the diversion of impulses for nurturing, sexuality, romance, territoriality, defense, and the entertainment industry’s hijacking of our social instincts. In the earlier book, Waistland,[2] she explains junk food as an exaggerated stimulus to cravings for salt, sugar, and fats and television as an exaggeration of social cues of laughter, smiling faces and attention-grabbing action. Modern artifacts may activate instinctive responses which evolved prior to the modern world, where breast development was a sign of health and fertility in a prospective mate, and fat was a rare and vital nutrient.

In a cross-cultural study, Doyle and Pazhoohi showed that surgically augmented breasts are supernormal stimuli, and they are more attractive than natural breasts, regardless of their size.[10] Also in a theoretical paper, Doyle proposed that how women walk creates supernormal stimuli through continuously alternating motion of the waist and hips causing peak shifts in perceptions of physical attractiveness involving women’s waist-to-hip ratio.[11]

In art

Costa and Corazza (2006),[12] examining 776 artistic portraits covering the whole history of art, showed that eye roundness, lip roundness, eye height, eye width, and lip height were significantly enhanced in artistic portraits compared to photographic ones matched for sex and age. In a second study, forty-two art academy students were requested to draw two self-portraits, one with a mirror and one without (from memory). Eye and lip size and roundness were greater in artistic self-portraits. These results show that the exaggeration and “supernormalization” of key features linked to attractiveness, such as eye and lip size, are frequently found in art.

See also

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernormal_stimulus

Further References

Antenucci, R. G., & Hayes, J. E.. (2015). Nonnutritive sweeteners are not supernormal stimuli. International Journal of Obesity

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2014.109
DOI URL
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Christy, J. H.. (2002). Mimicry, Mate Choice, and the Sensory Trap Hypothesis. The American Naturalist

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1086/285793
DOI URL
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