A Systematic Review of Autopsy Findings in Deaths after COVID-19 Vaccination
48 Pages Posted: 5 Jul 2023
Nicolas Hulscher
University of Michigan at Ann Arbor – School of Public Health
Paul E. Alexander
Government of the United States of America – Department of Health and Human Services
Richard Amerling
Wellness Company
Heather Gessling
Roger Hodkinson
William Makis
CancerControl Alberta – Alberta Health Services
Harvey A. Risch
Yale School of Public Health
Mark Trozzi
Peter A. McCullough
Abstract
Background: The rapid development and widespread deployment of COVID-19 vaccines, combined with a high number of adverse event reports, have led to concerns over possible mechanisms of injury including systemic lipid nanoparticle (LNP) and mRNA distribution, spike protein-associated tissue damage, thrombogenicity, immune system dysfunction, and carcinogenicity. The aim of this systematic review is to investigate possible causal links between COVID-19 vaccine administration and death using autopsies and post-mortem analysis.
Methods: We searched for all published autopsy and necropsy reports relating to COVID-19 vaccination up until May 18th, 2023. We initially identified 678 studies and, after screening for our inclusion criteria, included 44 papers that contained 325 autopsy cases and one necropsy case. Three physicians independently reviewed all deaths and determined whether COVID-19 vaccination was the direct cause or contributed significantly to death.
Findings: The most implicated organ system in COVID-19 vaccine-associated death was the cardiovascular system (53%), followed by the hematological system (17%), the respiratory system (8%), and multiple organ systems (7%). Three or more organ systems were affected in 21 cases. The mean time from vaccination to death was 14.3 days. Most deaths occurred within a week from last vaccine administration. A total of 240 deaths (73.9%) were independently adjudicated as directly due to or significantly contributed to by COVID-19 vaccination.
Interpretation: The consistency seen among cases in this review with known COVID-19 vaccine adverse events, their mechanisms, and related excess death, coupled with autopsy confirmation and physician-led death adjudication, suggests there is a high likelihood of a causal link between COVID-19 vaccines and death in most cases. Further urgent investigation is required for the purpose of clarifying our findings.
Funding: None.
Declaration of Interest: Drs Alexander, Amerling, Hodkinson, Makis, McCullough, Risch, Trozzi are affiliated with and receive salary support and or hold equity positions in The Wellness Company, Boca Raton, FL which had no role in funding, analysis, or publication.
Keywords: autopsy, necropsy, COVID-19, COVID-19 vaccines, mRNA, SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, death, excess mortality, spike protein, organ system
Suggested Citation:
Hulscher, Nicolas and Alexander, Paul E. and Amerling, Richard and Gessling, Heather and Hodkinson, Roger and Makis, William and Risch, Harvey A. and Trozzi, Mark and McCullough, Peter A., A Systematic Review of Autopsy Findings in Deaths after COVID-19 Vaccination. Available at SSRN: ssrn.com/abstract=4496137 or dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4496137
Translation of the associated Wikipedia entry (thus with a grain of salt): en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Finders_(movement) Die Finders waren eine absichtliche Gemeinschaft und eine Sekte, die in den frühen 1970er Jahren vom ehemaligen Air Force Master Sergeant Marion Pettie (1920-2003[1]) in Washington, D.C. gegründet wurde.
Verhaftungsfall 1987
Die Finder wurden einer breiteren Öffentlichkeit bekannt, als zwei Mitglieder der Bewegung 1987 in Tallahassee, Florida, verhaftet und wegen Kindesmissbrauchs an den sechs sie begleitenden Kindern angeklagt wurden, nachdem die beiden Männer geschwiegen hatten, als die Polizei sie in einem öffentlichen Park nach ihrer Identität und ihrer Beziehung zu den Kindern fragte.[2] Bei den Männern handelte es sich um Douglas Ammerman und James Michael Holwell, die beide als “gut gekleidete Männer in Anzügen” beschrieben wurden. Sie benutzten einen Lieferwagen, um “sechs schmuddelige, hungrige Kinder” unterschiedlichen Alters zu transportieren. Das Alter der Kinder lag zwischen 2 und 11 Jahren[3].
Die beiden ältesten Kinder, die als “Mary” und “Max” bezeichnet wurden, wurden von den Strafverfolgungsbehörden befragt, da die anderen zu jung waren, um sich richtig zu verständigen. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die medizinischen Untersuchungen der Kinder Anzeichen von sexuellem Missbrauch und Unterernährung sowie Bisswunden aufwiesen, die möglicherweise von einem erwachsenen Menschen stammten. Bei der Befragung sowie durch Augenzeugenberichte von Nachbarn wurde festgestellt, dass die Kinder auf einem Bauernhof, der Pettie gehörte, mit wenig Aufsicht durch Erwachsene aufgewachsen waren. Die jüngeren Kinder zeigten Verhaltensweisen, die darauf hindeuteten, dass sie nicht daran gewöhnt waren, in einem Haus zu leben oder die Sanitäranlagen im Haus zu benutzen, sie verlangten nach draußen zu gehen, um auf die Toilette zu gehen, oder urinierten in ihre Hosen (es wurde festgestellt, dass sie keine Unterwäsche trugen). “Max” hatte ein schlechtes Zeitverständnis. Sie erklärten, dass sie von ihren Müttern “entwöhnt” wurden und nur selten das Haus betreten und sogar draußen schlafen durften. Nachbarn beobachteten, dass die Kinder offenbar auf dem Wassermelonenfeld der Farm lebten. Mary beschrieb Ammerman und Holwell als ihre “Lehrer”, die ihnen das Lesen und “Spielen” beibrachten. Bei einem Spiel ging es darum, einen Mann zu entkleiden, seine Kleidung zu tragen und seine Taschen nach Geld zu durchsuchen (später revidierte sie ihre Aussage und behauptete, dass nur Jacken im Spiel waren). Die beiden berichteten, weibliche Mitglieder der Sekte nackt gesehen zu haben, und glaubten, dass dies ebenfalls ein Spiel war. Auf die Frage nach “bösen Berührungen” leugnete Mary den sexuellen Missbrauch, wurde aber “sehr zappelig und wollte das Gespräch beenden”. Auf einer anderen Finders-Farm in Virginia registrierten die Ermittler Käfige auf dem Gelände, von denen Zeugen behaupteten, dass sie zum Festhalten von Kindern verwendet wurden. Seit 2022 sind die vollständigen medizinischen und psychologischen Berichte nicht mehr öffentlich einsehbar.[4]
Laut Unterlagen des US-Bezirksgerichts in Washington hatte eine vertrauliche Polizeiquelle den Behörden zuvor mitgeteilt, dass es sich bei den Finders um eine Sekte” handele, die in einem Lagerhaus und einem Doppelhaus in Glover Park, das von den Strafverfolgungsbehörden durchsucht wurde, Gehirnwäsche”-Techniken durchführte. Diese Quelle erzählte, dass sie von den Finders mit Versprechungen von “finanzieller Belohnung und sexueller Befriedigung” angeworben wurde und dass sie von einem Mitglied eingeladen wurde, mit ihnen den Satanismus zu “erforschen”, so die Dokumente. Polizeiquellen zufolge zeigten einige der beschlagnahmten Gegenstände Bilder von Kindern, die anscheinend an “Kultritualen” beteiligt waren. Beamte der US-Zollbehörde sagten, dass zu dem beschlagnahmten Material auch Fotos gehörten, auf denen Kinder zu sehen waren, die an Aderlass-Zeremonien an Tieren beteiligt waren, und ein Foto, das ein Kind in Ketten zeigte.[5] Ein Ermittler stellte während der Ermittlungen fest, dass Dokumente mit detaillierten Anweisungen über Methoden zur Beschaffung von Kindern für nicht näher bezeichnete Zwecke entdeckt wurden (einschließlich der Schwängerung weiblicher Mitglieder der Gemeinschaft, des Kaufs, des Handels und der Entführung), aber weder die Dokumente noch jemand anderes, der davon wusste, konnten später gefunden werden.[4]
Robert Gardner Terrell, dem eines der durchsuchten Grundstücke gehörte, behauptete: “Wir sind vernünftige Leute”, “keine Teufelsanbeter oder Kinderschänder”, und “alles, was wir getan haben, beruhte auf dem Wunsch, dass die Kinder das reichste Leben haben, das sie haben können. Terrell zufolge handelte es sich bei den sichergestellten Fotos von nackten Kindern um Holwells eigene Kinder, und die toten Ziegen, die auf den von der Zollbehörde erwähnten Fotos zu sehen sind, wurden bereits geschlachtet, wobei den Kindern beigebracht wurde, wie man sie zubereitet.[6] Die Männer wurden sechs Wochen später freigelassen, und der Staat Florida ließ alle Anklagen gegen sie fallen.
Der Anführer der Finders, Robert Terrell, versammelte sich öffentlich mit Mitgliedern im Vietnam Memorial Park in Tallahassee, um mit Vertretern der Presse zu sprechen und der Öffentlichkeit die Möglichkeit zu geben, die Gruppe persönlich kennenzulernen, um “das schlechte Image zu zerstreuen, das der Gruppe von den Strafverfolgungsbehörden und den Medien verliehen wurde”[4].
Die Bundesbehörden kamen zu dem Schluss, dass es keine Beweise für kriminelle Aktivitäten gab, und stellten fest, dass man zwar mehr für die Kinder hätte tun können, dass es aber schwierig war, genaue Informationen zusammenzustellen, da das, was man über ihren Lebensstil wusste, nur subjektiv beurteilt werden konnte.[4] Die Behörden nahmen Kontakt zu den Müttern der Kinder auf, die nach Tallahassee kamen und sie abholten.[3]
Anschuldigungen gegen die Sekte
Trotz dieses Beschlusses wurde die Angelegenheit 1993 einer breiteren Öffentlichkeit bekannt, als Henry T. “Skip” Clements, ein in Stuart, Florida, ansässiger Berater im Privatsektor, eine Kopie des Berichts von 1987 erhielt, in dem es hieß, dass die Ermittlungen des DC Police Department gegen die Finders als “interne Angelegenheit der CIA” eingestellt worden waren. Clements behauptete, die Central Intelligence Agency habe die US-Zollbehörde gezwungen, die Ermittlungen einzustellen, weil die Kommune angeblich als Fassade für die Ausbildung von Agenten diente. Clements’ Behauptungen erregten das Interesse der beiden US-Kongressmitglieder Tom Lewis und Charlie Rose, was zu einer Untersuchung des Justizministeriums über die Finders und die Untersuchung von 1987 führte. [3][7] Der Sprecher der CIA, David Christian, erklärte, dass es sich bei den Anschuldigungen um ein Missverständnis handele, das darauf zurückzuführen sei, dass eine Firma namens Future Enterprises Inc. für die Ausbildung von Agenten genutzt werde und ein Mitglied der Finders dort als Teilzeitbuchhalter arbeite[8][4].
Verschwörungen
Im Jahr 2019 veröffentlichte das FBI Hunderte von Dokumenten im Zusammenhang mit den Finders und vermerkte auf seiner FBI Vault-Website, dass es sich dabei um das am häufigsten nachgefragte Thema handelte.[3] Trotz fehlender Beweise oder Verifizierung durch das Washington, DC Police Department wurde der Glaube, dass diese Berichte auf eine größere Verschwörung hinweisen, in einigen Kreisen populär.
Die Finder werden oft als ein frühes Beispiel für eine satanische Panik in den USA angesehen. Einige Autoren sind sogar so weit gegangen, den Verschwörungsglauben der Finder als “Patient Null” für andere Verschwörungsglauben zu bezeichnen, die sich auf die angebliche Vertuschung oder Beteiligung der US-Geheimdienste an sexuellem Missbrauch beziehen.[9] Ähnliche Behauptungen über eine groß angelegte staatliche Vertuschung finden sich auch in anderen Fällen, wie etwa im Zusammenhang mit dem Tod von Jeffrey Epstein.
Further References
Sofista Lilla Saferia. (2021). Deception in Conversation: The Study of Prince Andew’s Inteview About Jeffrey Epstein Sexual Allegations. English Education:Journal of English Teaching and Research
“Implicature as one of the prominent element of the principles has been developed in lateststudies, mainly the objective as it could be utilitizes to deliberately deceive the listeners onoccasion. previous researches has shown how speaker could deceive listener despite notsay something untrue or lie by categorizing lie is not something that is said but what isimplied in conversation. this study aims to investigate implied meaning and deceivingstatements in conversation. the object of this study is prince andrew’s bbc newsnightinterview about his involvement with convicted sex offender, jeffrey epstein. the data useddocument analysis based on the interview video of prince andrew’s interview with emilymaitlis. the result of this study indicates that prince andrew’s implied statements showdeeper relationship and more involvement with jeffrey epstein than what he was trying tosay in the interview.”
Latson, J.. (2020). The Mind of an Enabler. Psychology Today
Show/hide publication abstract
“Would anyone aid and abet a predator nxivm leader keith raniere was convicted last year of sex trafficking, forced labor, and racketeering in connection with the so-called self-help group that former members say he ran as a cult. in 2003, her husband at the time was arrested on charges of impersonating a doctor and sexually assaulting patients at the couple’s addiction treatment center, where he was the business manager. famous, wealthy, and powerful predators-those who move in elite social circles â la jeffrey epstein–have frequent access to another species of enabler: the narcissist. because narcissists have little emotional empathy and a high regard for social status, they’re able to rationalize abusing someone lower on the social hierarchy to win the favor of someone near the top. […]while savile demonstrated a predator’s uncanny knack for sensing vulnerability in his victims, it was his celebrity that empowered him to abuse the children without consequence, says ian robertson, an emeritus psychology professor at trinity college in dublin. savile’s iconic status, coupled with his reputation for doing good, gave him seemingly unlimited amounts of what robertson calls ‘idiosyncrasy credit’-a term coined by cuny baruch psychologist edwin hollander, meaning that the higher your value in your social group, the more you are allowed to deviate from its norms without being ostracized.”
Farmer, A.. (2023). Sexual Exploitation, Abuse, and Trafficking of School-Aged Children. In School Violence and Primary Prevention, Second Edition
“Recent growth in the public’s awareness of child sex trafficking has been accompanied by the spread of misinformation about the nature of this and related offenses. this chapter places trafficking within the larger context of child sexual abuse and exploitation (csa/cse) and highlights the ways that many of the crimes underneath this umbrella are connected. the author begins with the definition and clarification of terms that are central to understanding these issues, including grooming, trafficking, sextortion, and child sexual abuse material. research is presented on prevalence rates of csa/cse, factors associated with children’s vulnerability to becoming a victim, and common psychological consequences for those who do. the chapter concludes with information on recognizing and responding to csa/cse along with descriptions of approaches currently being utilized to prevent these crimes.”
Drybread, K.. (2022). Descending from Sadism to Trumpism: Jeffrey Epstein and the befouling of U.S. politics. In Corruption and Illiberal Politics in the Trump Era
Kuntz, B.. (2021). Stanley kubrick’s eyes wide shut as precursor to jeffrey epstein’s lolita express. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Gender Research
“This paper details the prescience of acclaimed british director, stanley kubrick’s last film, eyes wide shut, released in 1999, in foretelling the facts of the jeffrey epstein sexual abuse and sex trafficking affair which took place over decades and eventually led to epstein’s very suspicious suicide in his jail cell in new york in august 2019. feminist susan brownmiller delineated in 1975 how rape is an exercise in power; likewise, one of the major themes of eyes wide shut is sexual abuse, manipulation and violence perpetrated by the word’s economic, political, social, and cultural elites in the exercise of maintaining control and dominance. based on the events of the epstein case, a pattern – also described in eyes wide shut-emerges wherein politicians, corporate leaders, police, intelligence services, the judiciary and the mainstream media converge to protect the perpetrators and blame or disregard the rights of the victims. what transpires in both the epstein case and kubrick’s film is a web of sexual blackmail, intimidation and violence which serve to benefit the members of the elites and perpetrate the worldwide crisis of sex trafficking. in the epstein case and eyes wide shut, the institutional setting encompasses the neoliberal economic system in which the victims of sex trafficking are simply another expendable commodity to be bought and sold. in turn, these disadvantaged girls and women are the same as those targeted by the soul-less, formulaic multi-billion pornography industry whose violent images work to carry out misogyny, dehumanization, and patriarchy.”
Sofista Lilla Saferia. (2021). Deception in Conversation: The Study of Prince Andew’s Inteview About Jeffrey Epstein Sexual Allegations. English Education:Journal of English Teaching and Research
“Implicature as one of the prominent element of the principles has been developed in lateststudies, mainly the objective as it could be utilitizes to deliberately deceive the listeners onoccasion. previous researches has shown how speaker could deceive listener despite notsay something untrue or lie by categorizing lie is not something that is said but what isimplied in conversation. this study aims to investigate implied meaning and deceivingstatements in conversation. the object of this study is prince andrew’s bbc newsnightinterview about his involvement with convicted sex offender, jeffrey epstein. the data useddocument analysis based on the interview video of prince andrew’s interview with emilymaitlis. the result of this study indicates that prince andrew’s implied statements showdeeper relationship and more involvement with jeffrey epstein than what he was trying tosay in the interview.”
Latson, J.. (2020). The Mind of an Enabler. Psychology Today
Show/hide publication abstract
“Would anyone aid and abet a predator nxivm leader keith raniere was convicted last year of sex trafficking, forced labor, and racketeering in connection with the so-called self-help group that former members say he ran as a cult. in 2003, her husband at the time was arrested on charges of impersonating a doctor and sexually assaulting patients at the couple’s addiction treatment center, where he was the business manager. famous, wealthy, and powerful predators-those who move in elite social circles â la jeffrey epstein–have frequent access to another species of enabler: the narcissist. because narcissists have little emotional empathy and a high regard for social status, they’re able to rationalize abusing someone lower on the social hierarchy to win the favor of someone near the top. […]while savile demonstrated a predator’s uncanny knack for sensing vulnerability in his victims, it was his celebrity that empowered him to abuse the children without consequence, says ian robertson, an emeritus psychology professor at trinity college in dublin. savile’s iconic status, coupled with his reputation for doing good, gave him seemingly unlimited amounts of what robertson calls ‘idiosyncrasy credit’-a term coined by cuny baruch psychologist edwin hollander, meaning that the higher your value in your social group, the more you are allowed to deviate from its norms without being ostracized.”
Farmer, A.. (2023). Sexual Exploitation, Abuse, and Trafficking of School-Aged Children. In School Violence and Primary Prevention, Second Edition
“Recent growth in the public’s awareness of child sex trafficking has been accompanied by the spread of misinformation about the nature of this and related offenses. this chapter places trafficking within the larger context of child sexual abuse and exploitation (csa/cse) and highlights the ways that many of the crimes underneath this umbrella are connected. the author begins with the definition and clarification of terms that are central to understanding these issues, including grooming, trafficking, sextortion, and child sexual abuse material. research is presented on prevalence rates of csa/cse, factors associated with children’s vulnerability to becoming a victim, and common psychological consequences for those who do. the chapter concludes with information on recognizing and responding to csa/cse along with descriptions of approaches currently being utilized to prevent these crimes.”
Drybread, K.. (2022). Descending from Sadism to Trumpism: Jeffrey Epstein and the befouling of U.S. politics. In Corruption and Illiberal Politics in the Trump Era
Kuntz, B.. (2021). Stanley kubrick’s eyes wide shut as precursor to jeffrey epstein’s lolita express. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Gender Research
“This paper details the prescience of acclaimed british director, stanley kubrick’s last film, eyes wide shut, released in 1999, in foretelling the facts of the jeffrey epstein sexual abuse and sex trafficking affair which took place over decades and eventually led to epstein’s very suspicious suicide in his jail cell in new york in august 2019. feminist susan brownmiller delineated in 1975 how rape is an exercise in power; likewise, one of the major themes of eyes wide shut is sexual abuse, manipulation and violence perpetrated by the word’s economic, political, social, and cultural elites in the exercise of maintaining control and dominance. based on the events of the epstein case, a pattern – also described in eyes wide shut-emerges wherein politicians, corporate leaders, police, intelligence services, the judiciary and the mainstream media converge to protect the perpetrators and blame or disregard the rights of the victims. what transpires in both the epstein case and kubrick’s film is a web of sexual blackmail, intimidation and violence which serve to benefit the members of the elites and perpetrate the worldwide crisis of sex trafficking. in the epstein case and eyes wide shut, the institutional setting encompasses the neoliberal economic system in which the victims of sex trafficking are simply another expendable commodity to be bought and sold. in turn, these disadvantaged girls and women are the same as those targeted by the soul-less, formulaic multi-billion pornography industry whose violent images work to carry out misogyny, dehumanization, and patriarchy.”
Further References
Buck, J. A., London, K., & Wright, D. B.. (2011). Expert testimony regarding child witnesses: Does it sensitize jurors to forensic interview quality?. Law and Human Behavior
Rivard, J. R., & Schreiber Compo, N.. (2017). Self-Reported Current Practices in Child Forensic Interviewing: Training, Tools, and Pre-Interview Preparation. Behavioral Sciences and the Law
Sayfan, L., Mitchell, E. B., Goodman, G. S., Eisen, M. L., & Qin, J.. (2008). Children’s expressed emotions when disclosing maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect
“Child sexual abuse (csa) remains a significant societal problem; however, few csa cases are actually brought to trial. the cases that do proceed to trial typically involve little evidence, therefore, it is imperative that legal professionals become more aware of possible factors that may contribute to jurors’ perceptions of child complainants and in turn influence their case decisions. the goal of this study was to investigate the influence of jury instructions, child complainant age, child’s level of sexual knowledge, and preexisting beliefs about csa on mock jurors’ child credibility ratings. participants (n = 388) evaluated a mock csa trial transcript and answered questions related to the child’s credibility. results indicated that child credibility was dependent on mock jurors’ knowledge about csa, which in turn, differed by mock juror gender. pre-evidence jury instructions also influenced mock jurors’ csa misconception endorsements. child sexual knowledge level did not influence credibility, nor did it interact with child age. our study suggests that specialized pre-evidence jury instructions may educate legal fact finders about alleged csa victims and in turn may enhance their views of children in this specific legal context.”
The rise of neurotechnologies, especially in combination with artificial intelligence (AI)-based methods for brain data analytics, has given rise to concerns around the protection of mental privacy, mental integrity and cognitive liberty – often framed as “neurorights” in ethical, legal, and policy discussions. Several states are now looking at including neurorights into their constitutional legal frameworks, and international institutions and organizations, such as UNESCO and the Council of Europe, are taking an active interest in developing international policy and governance guidelines on this issue. However, in many discussions of neurorights the philosophical assumptions, ethical frames of reference and legal interpretation are either not made explicit or conflict with each other. The aim of this multidisciplinary work is to provide conceptual, ethical, and legal foundations that allow for facilitating a common minimalist conceptual understanding of mental privacy, mental integrity, and cognitive liberty to facilitate scholarly, legal, and policy discussions.
For example, Ienca, M, Andorno, R. Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Life Sciences, Society and Policy 2017;13(1):5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Sommaggio P, Mazzocca M, Gerola A, Ferro F. Cognitive liberty. A first step towards a human neuro-rights declaration. BioLaw Journal—Rivista di BioDiritto 2017;3:27–45; McCarthy-Jones S. The autonomous mind: The right to freedom of thought in the twenty-first century. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence 2019;2:1–7; Bublitz, J-C. The nascent right to psychological integrity and mental self-determination. In: von Arnauld, A, der Decken, K, Susi, M, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of New Human Rights: Recognition, Novelty, Rhetoric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2020:387–403 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Michalowski, S. Critical reflections on the need for a right to mental self-determination. In von Arnauld, A, der Decken, K, Susi, M, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of New Human Rights: Recognition, Novelty, Rhetoric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2020:404–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Alegre S. Rethinking freedom of thought for the 21st century, European Human Rights Law Review 2017;(3):221–33; Ligthart, S. Freedom of thought in Europe: Do advances in “brain-reading” technology call for revision?, Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2020;7(1):lsaa048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Ligthart, S, Douglas, T, Bublitz, C, Kooijmans, T, Meynen, G. Forensic brain-reading and mental privacy in European Human Rights Law: Foundations and challenges. Neuroethics 2021;14(2):191–203 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
2
Report on Respecting, Protecting and Fulfilling the Right to Freedom of Thought, to the 76th Session of the General Assembly, October 2021; United Nations, Our Common Agenda—Report of the Secretary-General, New York 2021, para 35.
3
Declaration of the Interamerican Juridical Committee on Neuroscience, Neurotechnologies and Human Rights: New Legal Challenges for the Americas, CJI/DEC. 01 (XCIX-O/21, August 11, 2021).
4
Committee on Bioethics of the Council of Europe. Strategic Action Plan on Human Rights and Technologies in Biomedicine (2020–2025), Adopted by the Committee on Bioethics (DH-BIO) at its 16th meeting (19–21 November 2019).
5
Report of the International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO. Ethical Issues of Neurotechnology, SHS/BIO/IBC28/2021/3Rev., Paris, France: UNESCO, 15 December 2021. See also Navarro MS, Dura-Bernal S, Gulotta CM, Stark C (eds.). The Risks and Challenges of Neurotechnologies for Human Rights. Paris, France; Milan, Italy; New York, NY: UNESCO; University of Milan-Bicocca – Department of Business and Law; State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate; 2023.
6
OECD. Recommendation on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology. Adopted by the OECD Council on 11 December 2019.
7
See note 4, Committee on Bioethics of the Council of Europe 2019.
8
Yuste, R, Goering, S, Arcas, BAY, Bi, G, Carmena, JM, Carter, A, et al. Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI. Nature 2017;551(7679):159–63CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Goering, S, Klein, E, Specker Sullivan, L, Wexler, A, , Agüera Y Arcas, B, Bi, G, et al. Recommendations for responsible development and application of neurotechnologies. Neuroethics 2021;14(3):365–86CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
9
Seaman JA. Your brain on lies: Deception detection in court. In: The Routledge Handbook of Neuroethics. New York, NY: Routledge; 2017; Farahany N. Searching secrets. University of Pennsylvania Law Review 2012;160(5):1239; Farahany N. Incriminating thoughts. Stanford Law Review 2012;64:351–408; Neurolaw: Advances in neuroscience, justice, and security. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan; 2021; McCay A. Neurotechnology, law and the legal profession, horizon report for the law society. The Law Society 2022; available at www.lawsociety.org.uk/topics/research/how-will-brain-monitoring-technology-influence-the-practice-of-law. Jotterand F. Punishment, responsibility, and brain interventions. In: Jotterand F, ed. The Unfit Brain and the Limits of Moral Bioenhancement. Singapore: Springer; 2022:171–92.
10
Gilbert, F, Dodds, S. Is there anything wrong with using AI Implantable brain devices to prevent convicted offenders from reoffending? In: Vincent, NA, Nadelhoffer, T, McCay, A, eds. Neurointerventions and the Law: Regulating Human Mental Capacity. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020 Google Scholar; Birks, D, Douglas, T, Birks, D, Douglas, T (eds.), Treatment for Crime: Philosophical Essays on Neurointerventions in Criminal Justice. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press; 2018 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; See note 9, McCay 2022.
11
See note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017, at 5; Genser J, Hermann S, Yuste R. International Human Rights Protection Gaps in the Age of Neurotechnology, report of the NeuroRights Foundation; 2022.
12
For some critical notes, see Zúñiga-Fajuri A, Miranda LV, Miralles DZ, Venegas RS. Chapter seven—Neurorights in Chile: Between neuroscience and legal science. In Hevia M, ed. Developments in Neuroethics and Bioethics. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2021:165–79; Fins JJ. The unintended consequences of Chile’s neurorights constitutional reform: Moving beyond negative rights to capabilities. Neuroethics 2022;15(3):26.
13
Report on Respecting, Protecting and Fulfilling the Right to Freedom of Thought, to the 76th Session of the General Assembly expected in July 2021; Declaration of the Interamerican Juridical Committee on Neuroscience, Neurotechnologies and Human Rights: New Legal Challenges for the Americas, CJI/DEC. 01 (XCIX-O/21, August 11, 2021; Ienca M. Common human rights challenges raised by different applications of neurotechnologies in the biomedical field, 2021; See note 4, Committee on Bioethics of the Council of Europe 2019.
14
See note 5, Navarro 2022.
15
As is often the case in interdisciplinary work, not all authors that contributed to the discussions and the resulting paper agree with every point made in the paper. We have made substantial efforts in harmonizing views and interpretations but also want to acknowledge the reality of “reasonable disagreement”.
16
It might be argued that drawing a distinction between bodily and mental integrity implicitly endorses a form of dualism between the body (including the brain) and the mind. To avoid this risk, some have proposed recognising a single right to “identity integrity”. However, since the rights to bodily and mental integrity are widely used in the academic literature and acknowledged in the law, such as by the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, we will stick to this terminology in this paper. In adopting this terminology, we do not mean to endorse dualism.
17
Ienca, M, Haselager, P, Emanuel, EJ. Brain leaks and consumer neurotechnology. Nature Biotechnology 2018;36(9):805–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Williamson, B. Brain data: Scanning, scraping and sculpting the plastic learning brain through neurotechnology. Postdigital Science and Education 2019;1(1):65–86 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kellmeyer, P. Big brain data: On the responsible use of brain data from clinical and consumer-directed neurotechnological devices. Neuroethics 2021;14(1):83–98 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
18
Ligthart S, Toor D van, Kooijmans T, Douglas T, Meynen G (eds.), Neurolaw: Advances in Neuroscience, Justice & Security. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan; 2021. See note 10, Birks et al. 2018.
19
Ienca, M, Jotterand, F, Elger, BS. From healthcare to warfare and reverse: How should we regulate dual-use neurotechnology? Neuron 2018;97(2):269–74CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
20
Roc, A, Pillette, L, Mladenovic, J, Benaroch, C, N’Kaoua, B, Jeunet, C, et al. A review of user training methods in brain computer interfaces based on mental tasks. Journal of Neural Engineering 2021;18(1): 1–32CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed;. Krol LR, Haselager P, Zander TO. Cognitive and affective probing: A tutorial and review of active learning for neuroadaptive technology. Journal of Neural Engineering 2020;17:1–15.
21
Delfin C, Krona H, Andiné P, Ryding E, Wallinius M, Hofvander B. Prediction of recidivism in a long-term follow-up of forensic psychiatric patients: Incremental effects of neuroimaging data. PLOS ONE 2019;14(5):e0217127; Aharoni, E, Vincent, GM, Harenski, CL, Calhoun, VD, Sinnott-Armstrong, W, Gazzaniga, MS, et al. Neuroprediction of future rearrest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2013;110(15):6223–28CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
22
Krauss, JK, Lipsman, N, Aziz, T, Boutet, A, Brown, P, Chang, JW, et al. Technology of deep brain stimulation: Current status and future directions. Nature Reviews Neurology 2021;17(2):75–87 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
24
De Risio, L, Borgi, M, Pettorruso, M, Miuli, A, Ottomana, AM, Sociali, A, et al. Recovering from depression with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS): A systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies. Translational Psychiatry 2020;10(1):1–19 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
25
Bouthour, W, Mégevand, P, Donoghue, J, Lüscher, C, Birbaumer, N, Krack, P. Biomarkers for closed-loop deep brain stimulation in Parkinson disease and beyond. Nature Reviews Neurology 2019;15(6):343–52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Holmen, SJ, Ryberg, J. Interventionist advisory brain devices, aggression, and crime prevention. Journal of Cognition and Neuroethics 2021;8:1–22 Google Scholar.
26
Mashat, MEM, Li, G, Zhang, D. Human-to-human closed-loop control based on brain-to-brain interface and muscle-to-muscle interface. Scientific Reports 2017;7(1):11001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. For an overview see also: Kellmeyer, P. Artificial intelligence in basic and clinical neuroscience: Opportunities and ethical challenges. Neuroforum 2019;25:241–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
27
Jones, EG, Mendell, LM. Assessing the decade of the brain. Science 1999;284(5415):739–9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
28
The term was coined in a series of essays by Boire RG. On cognitive liberty. Journal of Cognitive Liberties; available at (www.cognitiveliberty.org/ccle1/1jcl/1jcl (last accessed 22 Mar 2023).
30
See note 12, Ienca 2021.
31
In our discussion here, we will refer to specific “neurorights” as “human rights” if they are conceptualized (or discussed) within an international and universal context (e.g., in discussions at the level of the UN).
32
Kellmeyer P. “Neurorights”: A human rights–based approach for governing neurotechnologies. In: Mueller O, Kellmeyer P, Voeneky S, Burgard W, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of Responsible Artificial Intelligence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2022:412–26; See note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017; See note 1, Sommaggio et al. 2017; See note 11, NeuroRights Foundation 2022.
33
Bublitz, JC. Novel neurorights: From nonsense to substance. Neuroethics 2022;15(1):7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Bublitz, JC. Freedom of thought in the age of neuroscience: A plea and a proposal for the renaissance of a forgotten fundamental right. ARSP: Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie/Archives for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy 2014;100(1):1–25 Google Scholar; Ligthart S. Coercive Brain-Reading in Criminal Justice: An Analysis of European Human Rights Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2022; Hertz N. Neurorights—Do we need new human rights? A reconsideration of the right to freedom of thought. Neuroethics 2022;16(1):5; See note 1, McCarthy-Jones 2019; See note 1, Alegre 2017.
34
Rainey, S, McGillivray, K, Akintoye, S, Fothergill, T, Bublitz, C, Stahl, B. Is the European data protection regulation sufficient to deal with emerging data concerns relating to neurotechnology? Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2020;7(1):lsaa051CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; See note 1, Ligthart et al. 2021.
35
See note 1, Michalowski 2020; see note 1, Ligthart 2020; see note 12, Zúñiga-Fajuri et al. 2021.
36
Douglas, T, Forsberg, L. Three rationales for a legal right to mental integrity. In: Ligthart, S, van Toor, D, Kooijmans, T, Douglas, T, Meynen, G, eds. Neurolaw: Advances in Neuroscience, Justice & Security. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021:179–201 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lavazza A. freedom of thought and mental integrity: The moral requirements for any neural prosthesis. Frontiers in Neuroscience 2018;12:1–10; see note 8, Goering et al. 2021; Mecacci, G, Haselager, P. Identifying criteria for the evaluation of the implications of brain reading for mental privacy. science and engineering. Ethics 2019;25:443–61Google Scholar; Germani, F, Kellmeyer, P, Wäscher, S, Biller-Andorno, N. Engineering minds? Ethical considerations on biotechnological approaches to mental health, well-being, and human flourishing. Trends in Biotechnology 2021;39:1111–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
37
Criticism of the implementation of legal language for moral rights addresses structural problems such as the integration of a vertical view typical of human rights jurisprudence, which runs counter to the traditional horizontal view in ethical reasoning. Legal language too often implies the violation of rights, whereas ethical language presupposes reciprocal dialogue between actors without implying that rights have been previously violated or duties not fulfilled. Sperling D. Law and bioethics: A rights-based relationship and its troubling implications. In: Freeman M, ed. Law and Bioethics: Current Legal Issues, Vol. 11. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. Moreover, ethical choices can be made between two legally acceptable solutions, which helps to ground the reasoning about which ethical and moral concepts should be condensed into law. Additionally, in order to do justice to ethical decisions, it is not always enough to meet legal standards. See Sperling 2008, at 65, 71.
38
Henceforth, our use of “rights” means “legal rights.”
39
It may be the case that dualist ideas have a more pervasive influence on legal systems. See Fox, D, Stein, A. Dualism and doctrine. Indiana Law Journal 2015;90(3):975 Google Scholar.
40
Thomson, JJ. The Realm of Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1992 Google Scholar; Ripstein A. Beyond the harm principle, Philosophy & Public Affairs 2006;34(3):215–45; Archard, D. Informed consent: Autonomy and self-ownership. Journal of Applied Philosophy 2008;25(1):19–34 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
41
Bublitz C, Merkel R. Crimes against minds: On mental manipulations, harms and a human right to mental self-determination. Criminal Law and Philosophy 2014;8:51–77.
42
An important conceptual question here could be whether we can conceive of a mind without a brain? As discussed in this section, reflecting common theorizing in philosophy and cognitive science accounts, many accounts of mental integrity assume embodiment (and some degree of bodily integrity). But this might imply remnant notions of mind–body dualism that would need to be addressed (which exceeds the scope of the discussion here). A member of our group has suggested to use the terminology “identity integrity” instead. For further consideration see, inter alia, Jotterand F. Personal identity, neuroprosthetics, and alzheimer’s disease. In: Jotterand, F, Ienca, M, Wangmo, T, Elger, BS, Jotterand, F, Ienca, M, et al. eds. Intelligent Assistive Technologies for Dementia: Clinical, Ethical, Social, and Regulatory Implications. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2019 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jotterand F. Neuroethics as an anthropological project. In: Farisco M, ed. Neuroethics and Cultural Diversity (forthcoming); Jotterand, F. The Unfit Brain and the Limits of Moral Bioenhancement. Singapore: Springer; 2022 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
43
Ayer AJ. The concept of a person. In: Ayer AJ, ed. The Concept of a Person: and Other Essays. London: Macmillan Education; 1963:82–128; Rorty, R. Incorrigibility as the mark of the mental. The Journal of Philosophy 1970;67(12):399–424 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nagel, T. What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review 1974;83:435–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dennett DC. Consciousness Explained. London: Penguin Books; 1991.
44
Warren, S, Brandeis, L. The right to privacy. Harvard Law Review 1890;4(5):193–220 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
45
Alderman E, Kennedy C. The Right to Privacy. New York, NY: Vintage Books; 1997. Brin D. The Transparent Society: Will Technology Force us to Choose Between Privacy and Freedom? Reading, MA: Perseus Books; 1998.
46
Vansteensel, MJ, Pels, EGM, Bleichner, MG, Branco, MP, Denison, T, Freudenburg, ZV, et al. Fully implanted brain–computer interface in a locked-in patient with ALS. New England Journal of Medicine 2016;375(21):2060–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
48
Haselager, P, Vlek, R, Hill, J, Nijboer, F. A note on ethical aspects of BCI. Neural Networks: The Official Journal of the International Neural Network Society 2009;22(9):1352–57CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
49
Veit, R, Singh, V, Sitaram, R, Caria, A, Rauss, K, Birbaumer, N. Using real-time fMRI to learn voluntary regulation of the anterior insula in the presence of threat-related stimuli. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2012;7(6):623–34CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
51
Farah, MJ, Hutchinson, JB, Phelps, EA, Wagner, AD. Functional MRI-based lie detection: Scientific and societal challenges. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 2014;15(2):123–31CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Langleben DD, Moriarty JC. Using brain imaging for lie detection: Where science, law and research policy collide. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law : An Official Law Review of the University of Arizona College of Law and the University of Miami School of Law 2013;19(2):222–34; Shen, F. Neuroscience, mental privacy, and the law. Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 2013;36:653–713 Google Scholar; See note 22, Farah et al. 2014.
52
Salmanowitz N. The case for pain neuroimaging in the courtroom: Lessons from deception detection. Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2015;2:139–48; Reardon S. Neuroscience in court: The painful truth. Nature 2015;518:474–6; For methodological limits of neuroimaging for legal applications see also: Kellmeyer, P. Ethical and legal implications of the methodological crisis in neuroimaging. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2017;26:530–54CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
53
Unterrainer HF, Chen MJ-L, Gruzelier JH. EEG-neurofeedback and psychodynamic psychotherapy in a case of adolescent anhedonia with substance misuse: Mood/theta relations, International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology 2014;93(1):84–95.
54
Bublitz J-C. My mind is mine!? Cognitive liberty as a legal concept. In: Hildt E, Franke AG, eds. Cognitive Enhancement: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; 2013:233–64. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6253-4_19.
55
See note 54, Bublitz 2013.
56
Farahany N. The costs of changing our minds. Emory Law Journal 2019;69(1):75, at 97; See also Farahany, N. The Battle for Your Brain: Defending the Right to Think Freely in the Age of Neurotechnology. New York: St. Martin’s Press; 2023 Google Scholar.
57
See note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017, at 11.
58
See note 36, Lavazza 2018.
59
Report commissioned by the Committee on Bioethics of COE; 2021; available at www.rm_coe.int/report; See note 13, Ienca 2021.
60
See note 56, Farahany 2023.
61
A potential precedent in addressing this worry may be found in the latest version of the Chilean Bill on neuroprotection (still being drafted), which proposes that medical as well as non-medical neurotechnologies must be registered by the National Institute of Public Health for their use in humans.
62
ECtHR 12 October 2006, appl.no. 13178/03 (Mayeka and Kaniki Mitunga/Belgium), § 83.
63
Vries K. Right to respect for private and family life. In: van Dijk P, et al. eds. Theory and Practice of the European Convention On Human Rights, 2018; ECtHR 14 January 2020, appl.no. 41288/15 (Beizaras and Levickas/Lithuania), § 128; ECtHR 7 May 2019, appl.no. 12509/13 (Panayotova and Others/Bulgaria), § 58–9.
64
See note 1, Bublitz 2020, at 388, 395.
65
See note 1, Michalowski 2020, at 406; see note 64, de Vries 2018, at 690.
66
See note 1, Bublitz 2020; see note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017, at 18.
67
ECtHR 26 November 2009, appl.no. 25282/06 (Dolenec/Croatia), § 165; ECtHR 6 February 2001, appl.no. 44599/98 (Bensaid/UK), § 47.
68
ECtHR 24 July 2012, appl.no. 41526/10 (Đorđević/Croatia), § 97–8.
69
ECtHR 30 November 2010, appl.no. 2660/03 (Hajduová/Slovakia), § 49.
70
ECtHR 28 October 2014, appl.no. 20531/06 (Ion Cârstea/Romania) § 38; ECtHR 21 November 2013, appl. no. 16882/03 (Putistin/Ukraine), § 32; See note 1, Michalowski 2020, at 406
71
EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights. Commentary of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. European Commission; 2006.
73
Nowak M. “Article 3 CFR”. In: EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, ed. Commentary of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Brussels: European Commission; 2006:36.
74
Vermeulen, BP. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article 9). In: van Dijk, P, van Hoof, F, van Rijn, A, Zwaak, L, eds. Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights. Antwerpen: Intersentia; 2006:751–71Google Scholar.
75
Murdoch, J. Protecting the Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion Under the European Convention on Human Rights. Strasbourg: Council of Europe; 2012 Google Scholar.
76
General Comment No. 22: The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Art. 18) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, para. 3; see note 75, Vermeulen 2006, at 751–71.
77
Harris, DJ, O’Boyle, M, Bates, E, Buckley, C. Harris. O’Boyle & Warbrick: Law of the European Convention on Human Rights. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
78
General Comment No. 22: The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Art. 18) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, paras 1–2 and its preparatory work: CCPR/C/SR.1162, paras 14, 34–40; Evans, C. Freedom of Religion under the European Convention on Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Partsch K. Freedom of conscience and expression, and political freedoms. In: Henkin L, ed. The International Bill of Rights: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 1981: 213–4.
79
See note 33, Hertz 2022; UN Report FoT 2021; see note 1, McCarthy-Jones 2019; see note 1, Alegre 2017; Bublitz JC. Novel neurorights: From nonsense to substance. Neuroethics 2022;15:7.
80
Jong CD de. The Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion or Belief in the United Nations (1946–1992), Antwerpen: Intersentia/Hart; 2000; Evans MD, Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1997; see note 33, Ligthart 2022; see note 79, Partsch 1981.
81
See note 12, Ienca 2021.
82
Ligthart S, Bublitz C, Douglas T, Forsberg L, Meynen G. Rethinking the right to freedom of thought: A multidisciplinary analysis. Human Rights Law Review 2022;22:14.
83
See DARPA’s recent project on Neural Evidence Aggregation Tool (NEAT); available at www.darpa.mil/news-events/2022-03-02 (last accessed 22 Mar 2023). “NEAT aims to develop a new cognitive science tool that identifies people at risk of suicide by using preconscious brain signals rather than asking questions and waiting for consciously filtered responses.” See also: Haselager, P, Mecacci, G, Wolkenstein, A. Clinical neurotechnology meets artificial intelligence. In: Friedrich, O, Wolkenstein, A, Bublitz, C, Jox, RJ, Racine, E, eds. Philosophical, Ethical, Legal and Social Implications. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021.55–68Google Scholar. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64590-8_5.
84
Chandler, JA, Van der Loos, KI, Boehnke, SE, Beaudry, JS, Buchman, DZ, Illes, J. Building communication neurotechnology for high stakes communications. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2021;22(10):587–88CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Maslen, H, Rainey, S. “A steadying hand”: Ascribing speech acts to users of predictive speech assistive technologies. Journal of Law and Medicine 2018;26(1):44–53 Google ScholarPubMed.
85
UN Human Rights Council, The right to privacy in the digital age, A/HRC/39/29, 3 August 2018, para. 5.
86
CCPR General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (Right to Privacy), para. 1.
87
UN Human Rights Council, The right to privacy in the digital age, A/HRC/39/29, 3 August 2018, para. 5.
88
UN Human Rights Council, The right to privacy in the digital age, A/HRC/39/29, 3 August 2018, para. 5.
89
UN Human Rights Council, The right to privacy in the digital age, A/HRC/39/29, 3 August 2018, para. 15.
90
ECtHR (GC) 27 June 2017, appl.no. 931/13 (Satakunnan Markkinapörssi Oy and Satamedia Oy/Finland), § 137 (emphasis added).
92
ECtHR (GC) 4 December 2008, appl.nos. 30562/04 and 30566/04 (S. & Marper/UK), § 67; ECtHR 13 February 2020, appl.no. 45245/15 (Gaughran/UK), § 70. See note 64, de Vries 2018, at 673.
93
Council of Europe. The European Convention on Human Rights: A Living Instrument. Strasbourg 2020:7.
94
Article 4(1) GDPR.
95
See note 4, Rainey et al. 2020; see note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017.
96
See note 29, Bublitz 2014; see note 1, Ligthart et al. 2021.
97
General Comment No. 22: The right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Art. 18) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, para. 3; see note 64, Vermeulen 2006.
98
Shaheed, UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Report on the Freedom of Thought, 5 October 2021, A/76/380, at 94, para. 26.
99
See note 33, Bublitz 2014; see note 1, Alegre 2017; see note 1, McCarthy-Jones 2019; see note 1, Ligthart 2020.
100
See 82, Ligthart et al. 2022.
101
Rainey, B, Wicks, E, Jacobs, Ovey C., White and Ovey: The European Convention on Human Rights. 8th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see note 77, Harris 2018.
102
General comment No. 34 Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, CCPR/C/GC/34, paras 11–12; ECtHR (GC) 15 December 2005, appl.no 73797/01 (Kyprianou/Cyprus), § 174; Interamerican Commission on Human Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principle 2; Grossman, C. Freedom of expression in the inter-american system for the protection of human rights. ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law 2001;7(3):619–47Google Scholar.
103
General comment No. 34 Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 10.
104
See note 77, Harris 2018, at 595. See, for example, EComHR 7 April 1994, appl.no. 20871/92 (Strohal/Austria); ECtHR (GC) 3 April 2012, appl.no. 41723/06 (Gillberg/Sweden), § 86; ECtHR 23 October 2018, appl.no. 26892/12 (Wanner/Germany), § 39–42. An important note: This suggests that the right to silence has been protected by the ECtHR. The response of the ECtHR to English attacks on the right to silence suggests otherwise. One can remain silent, but adverse inferences can be drawn from the person’s silence, which does not amount to much of a protection of the right to silence. In the future we might expect the ECtHR to extend its approach by saying a person can refuse brain-based lie detection that the state wants to employ, but if the person does so, adverse inferences can be drawn from the refusal.
105
See note 33, Ligthart 2022; see note 1, Ligthart 2020.
106
See note 33, Ligthart 2022.
107
Sententia, W. Neuroethical considerations: Cognitive liberty and converging technologies for improving human cognition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2004; 1013:221–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bublitz, C, Cognitive liberty or the international human right to freedom of thought. In: Clausen, J, Levy, N, eds. Handbook of Neuroethics. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; 2015:1309–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
108
See note 56, Farahany 2019, 2023.
109
See note 1, Bublitz 2020; see note 1, Ienca, Andorno 2017; see note 41, Bublitz, Merkel 2014.
110
Ligthart, S, Kooijmans, T, Douglas, T, Meynen, G. Closed-loop brain devices in offender rehabilitation: Autonomy, human rights, and accountability. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2021;30(4):669–80CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Kellmeyer, P, Cochrane, T, Müller, O, Mitchell, C, Ball, T, Fins, JJ, et al. The effects of closed-loop medical devices on the autonomy and accountability of persons and systems. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2016;25:623–33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
111
See note 4, Committee on Bioethics of the Council of Europe 2019; § 21–22 (emphasis added).
112
See note 1, Bublitz 2020, at 397.
113
ECtHR 12 October 2006, appl.no. 13178/03 (Mayeka and Kaniki Mitunga/Belgium), § 83.
114
ECtHR (GC) 27 June 2017, appl.no. 931/13 (Satakunnan Markkinapörssi Oy and Satamedia Oy/Finland), § 137.
116
Either as an individual notion or as part of the right to mental integrity.
117
Ligthart, S, Meynen, G, Biller-Andorno, N, Kooijmans, T, Kellmeyer, P. Is virtually everything possible? The relevance of ethics and human rights for introducing extended reality in forensic psychiatry. AJOB Neuroscience 2022;13(3):144–57CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
In a rapidly evolving world where technology, philosophy, and personal growth intersect, the concepts of cognitive liberty and expanding consciousness have captured the attention of individuals seeking to explore the depths of their own minds. At the core of this exploration lies the quest for personal freedom, self-discovery, and a deeper understanding of the human experience. In this blog post, we’ll delve into these intriguing concepts without focusing on drug-related aspects, shedding light on the transformative journey towards mental sovereignty and ethical expansion.
**Cognitive Liberty: Claiming the Right to Our Minds**
Cognitive liberty stands as a beacon of individual sovereignty over our thoughts, beliefs, and cognitive processes. It’s about embracing the power to shape our own perspectives and pursue knowledge without constraint. This concept goes beyond legal or political rights; it encompasses the idea that our mental faculties are essential to our identity and should be protected from undue external influence.
As we discuss cognitive liberty in a broader context, it becomes clear that it encompasses more than substances. It encompasses the ability to explore diverse ideas, engage in critical thinking, and shape our perceptions independently.
**Expanding Consciousness: The Inner Odyssey**
At the heart of cognitive liberty is the pursuit of expanding consciousness. This journey, often embarked upon through practices like meditation, mindfulness, and introspection, is about transcending the confines of routine awareness. It’s an odyssey that allows us to venture into the depths of our own minds, exploring the realms of creativity, insight, and connection to a larger universe.
Expanding consciousness isn’t limited to chemical alterations; it’s a holistic experience that encompasses philosophical, spiritual, and psychological growth. It encourages us to explore the boundaries of our perception and embrace the mysteries that lie beyond.
**Ethical Philosophy: Navigating the Inner Landscape Responsibly**
As we tread the path of cognitive exploration and expanding consciousness, ethical considerations become paramount. Ethical philosophy guides us in discerning our responsibilities as explorers of the mind. How do we navigate our inner landscape with respect for ourselves and others? How do we approach personal growth without infringing upon the rights and well-being of those around us?
Ethical exploration involves balancing our innate curiosity with a profound respect for the boundaries and well-being of others. It’s about fostering a compassionate and informed approach that ensures our quest for enlightenment contributes positively to our own lives and the greater community.
**Final Thoughts: Embracing the Journey**
Cognitive liberty and expanding consciousness are two facets of the intricate tapestry that makes us human. By recognizing our right to explore our own minds and pursuing the expansion of our awareness in ethical and responsible ways, we embark on a transformative journey of self-discovery, connection, and personal growth. This journey isn’t limited to any one method; it’s a vast landscape of potential waiting to be explored, understood, and cherished.
As we venture forward, let us remember that cognitive liberty and expanded consciousness are not merely abstract concepts, but living, breathing philosophies that encourage us to embrace the boundless potential of the human mind.
Explore. Question. Evolve.
**Title: Exploring Cognitive Liberty and Expanding Human Consciousness**
**Introduction:**
In a world where the realms of thought, consciousness, and personal freedom converge, the concept of cognitive liberty takes center stage. This dynamic principle is not only about the freedom of choice; it’s about the sovereignty of the mind itself. Delving into the realm of consciousness exploration, ethical philosophy, and the mind-body connection can empower individuals to expand their human experience without being tethered to external constraints. In this blog post, we’ll journey through the corridors of cognitive liberty and consciousness expansion, uncovering the potential for personal growth, intellectual exploration, and the pursuit of higher states of awareness.
**Cognitive Liberty: Nurturing the Garden of Thought:**
Cognitive liberty goes beyond the conventional understanding of personal freedom. It’s the notion that our thoughts, beliefs, and experiences belong solely to us, and no external entity has the authority to dictate or regulate them. This principle, closely intertwined with ethical philosophy, urges us to safeguard our cognitive realm from undue interference. In a world where information and ideas flow ceaselessly, cognitive liberty offers the foundation for critical thinking, self-expression, and open dialogue.
**Consciousness Exploration: Beyond the Horizon of Awareness:**
At the heart of cognitive liberty lies the opportunity for consciousness exploration. This journey involves venturing into the depths of our own minds, seeking to understand the intricacies of our thoughts and the expanses of our awareness. Through practices like mindfulness, meditation, and contemplation, we can unlock new perspectives and discover hidden facets of our consciousness. This form of personal growth allows us to break free from the limitations of routine thinking and explore the vast landscape of our inner worlds.
**Mind-Body Connection: Bridging the Gap:**
The intricate relationship between our mind and body shapes our perceptions, experiences, and responses to the world around us. Understanding this connection provides a gateway to cognitive enhancement and expanded consciousness. By nurturing both mental and physical well-being, we create an environment where cognitive liberty flourishes. Practices such as yoga, breathwork, and holistic health approaches contribute to harmonizing the mind-body connection, enabling us to access new dimensions of awareness.
**Expanding Human Consciousness: The Uncharted Horizons:**
As we embrace cognitive liberty and delve into consciousness exploration, we embark on a journey to expand human consciousness. This is not a mere intellectual exercise; it’s a transformational endeavor that awakens us to the potential of heightened states of awareness. By integrating philosophy, science, and personal experience, we can transcend the boundaries of ordinary consciousness and glimpse the extraordinary. It’s an evolution that empowers us to embrace the full spectrum of human potential.
**Conclusion:**
Cognitive liberty stands as a beacon of intellectual autonomy, inviting us to explore the intricacies of consciousness and embrace our capacity for growth and expansion. By nurturing the mind-body connection and delving into ethical philosophy, we pave the way for greater cognitive awareness. As we journey through the landscapes of thought, we redefine personal freedom, creating a tapestry of consciousness that is uniquely our own. In the pursuit of cognitive liberty, we unlock the doors to uncharted realms of human consciousness, and in doing so, we find liberation in the vast expanses of our own minds.
Title: **”Unlocking the Mind: Navigating Cognitive Liberty and Expanding Consciousness”**
In a world where our understanding of consciousness and the human mind is constantly evolving, the concept of cognitive liberty has gained significance as a gateway to exploring the depths of our inner experiences. Delving into altered states of consciousness and personal growth, the pursuit of cognitive liberty has taken on ethical and philosophical dimensions that extend far beyond the realm of substances. In this blog post, we’ll journey through the realms of cognitive liberty, consciousness exploration, and the ethical considerations that guide our pursuit of mind freedom.
**Cognitive Liberty: Beyond Boundaries**
Cognitive liberty, often referred to as the right to control one’s own mental processes and experiences, is a fundamental concept that opens doors to personal growth and self-discovery. At its core, cognitive liberty acknowledges that each individual should have the autonomy to explore the reaches of their consciousness without undue constraints. This exploration goes beyond traditional understandings of freedom; it’s an exploration of our inner worlds and the realization that our minds are landscapes ripe for discovery.
**The Odyssey of Consciousness Exploration**
Consciousness exploration, a key facet of cognitive liberty, invites us to embark on an odyssey within ourselves. Through practices such as meditation, mindfulness, and introspection, we can unlock altered states of consciousness that illuminate new perspectives on reality. This journey doesn’t rely on external substances; rather, it’s a mindful navigation of our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions. It’s a quest to better understand the intricate web of our consciousness and the infinite potential it holds.
**Ethical Philosophy: Guiding Our Path**
As we tread the path of cognitive liberty, ethical philosophy serves as our compass. We’re confronted with questions that challenge us to consider the implications of our actions on both ourselves and society. How do we responsibly wield our freedom to explore our minds? How do we ensure that our pursuits don’t infringe upon the well-being of others? Ethical considerations shape our approach to cognitive liberty, emphasizing respect for ourselves, others, and the interconnectedness of our experiences.
**Expanding Horizons, Expanding Humanity**
Expanding human consciousness is a journey of expanding our horizons and, in turn, expanding our humanity. By embracing cognitive liberty and consciously exploring our inner landscapes, we contribute to the ever-evolving tapestry of human understanding. Our discoveries become threads woven into the fabric of shared knowledge, fostering empathy, connection, and a deeper appreciation for the diversity of human experience.
**Cognitive Rights for the Future**
In the pursuit of cognitive liberty, we’re paving the way for cognitive rights to be recognized and protected. Just as we cherish freedom of speech and expression, cognitive rights could emerge as a cornerstone of our evolving societal framework. By championing cognitive liberty, we’re advocating for the importance of personal growth, self-awareness, and the exploration of consciousness as integral components of the human experience.
In conclusion, cognitive liberty transcends conventional boundaries and offers us a profound invitation to explore the limitless dimensions of our minds. As we embark on this journey of consciousness exploration, guided by ethical considerations, we contribute to the ongoing evolution of human understanding and interconnectedness. Let us embrace cognitive liberty as a catalyst for personal growth, connection, and the expansion of our shared humanity.
**Title: Exploring Cognitive Liberty: Navigating the Frontiers of Human Consciousness**
In a rapidly evolving world, the exploration of cognitive liberty and the depths of human consciousness has taken center stage. As we journey towards greater self-awareness and understanding, a multitude of fascinating concepts come into play. Let’s delve into the captivating realm of cognitive liberty without focusing on drug-related aspects, and discover how it influences personal growth, ethical philosophy, and the expansion of our cognitive horizons.
**Consciousness Exploration for Personal Growth**
Consciousness, that enigmatic phenomenon that defines our awareness, offers a vast landscape for exploration. In the pursuit of personal growth, understanding the various dimensions of consciousness becomes a transformative endeavor. Exploring altered states of consciousness, not limited to substances, can lead to insights about the mind’s capabilities and the limitless potential for self-improvement.
**Cognitive Enhancement and the Mind-Body Connection**
Cognitive enhancement is an exciting avenue of study that transcends the boundaries of conventional thought. It encompasses practices that harness the mind’s innate abilities to optimize cognitive functions. The mind-body connection, a cornerstone of cognitive liberty, allows us to explore techniques such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive exercises to unlock new levels of mental clarity and focus.
**Ethical Philosophy and Cognitive Rights**
As cognitive liberty paves the way for uncharted territories, questions of ethics and personal freedom emerge. Ethical philosophy enters the discussion as we contemplate the boundaries of our cognitive experiences. The concept of cognitive rights gains prominence, advocating for individuals’ autonomy over their consciousness and mental states, irrespective of their chosen path of exploration.
**The Neuroethical Implications of Expanding Consciousness**
Neuroethics, a field at the intersection of neuroscience and ethics, plays a crucial role in the pursuit of cognitive liberty. It grapples with the implications of altering consciousness and advocates for responsible exploration. The discourse surrounding neuroethics challenges us to consider the potential impacts of our actions on both our individual well-being and society at large.
**Embracing Cognitive Liberty: A Journey of Discovery**
In conclusion, cognitive liberty offers a multidimensional journey that extends far beyond its perceived associations with substance-related exploration. It encompasses personal growth, ethical considerations, and the intersection of mind and body. By embracing the diversity of cognitive experiences available to us, we embark on a profound journey of self-discovery and a deeper understanding of the complexities of human consciousness.
As we navigate the uncharted waters of cognitive liberty, we’re invited to challenge existing paradigms, explore the unexplored, and champion our right to explore the full spectrum of human consciousness in an ethical and mindful manner.
Keywords: Cognitive liberty, Consciousness exploration, Mind freedom, Psychedelic research, Altered states of consciousness, Personal growth and consciousness, Cognitive enhancement, Ethical philosophy, Drug policy reform, Mental sovereignty, Psychedelic therapy, Mind-body connection, Neuroethics, Expanding human consciousness, Cognitive rights
Oller, J. W., Shaw, C. A., Tomljenovic, L., Karanja, S. K., Ngare, W., Clement, F. M., & Pillette, J. R.. (2017). HCG Found in WHO Tetanus Vaccine in Kenya Raises Concern in the Developing World. OALib
“In 1993, who announced a ‘birth-control vaccine’ for ‘family planning’. published research shows that by 1976 who researchers had conjugated tetanus toxoid (tt) with human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg) producing a ‘birth-control’ vaccine. conjugating tt with hcg causes pregnancy hormones to be attacked by the immune system. expected results are abortions in females already pregnant and/or infertility in recipients not yet impregnated. repeated inoculations prolong infertility. currently who researchers are working on more potent anti-fertility vaccines using recombinant dna. who publications show a long-range purpose to reduce population growth in unstable ‘less developed countries’. by november 1993 catholic publications appeared saying an abortifacient vaccine was being used as a tetanus prophylactic. in november 2014, the catholic church asserted that such a program was underway in kenya. three independent nairobi accredited biochemistry laboratories tested samples from vials of the who tetanus vaccine being used in march 2014 and found hcg where none should be present. in october 2014, 6 additional vials were obtained by catholic doctors and were tested in 6 accredited laboratories. again, hcg was found in half the samples. subsequently, nairobi’s agriq quest laboratory, in two sets of analyses, again found hcg in the same vaccine vials that tested positive earlier but found no hcg in 52 samples alleged by the who to be vials of the vaccine used in the kenya campaign 40 with the same identifying batch numbers as the vials that tested positive for hcg. given that hcg was found in at least half the who vaccine samples known by the doctors involved in administering the vaccines to have been used in kenya, our opinion is that the kenya ‘anti-tetanus’ campaign was reasonably called into question by the kenya catholic doctors association as a front for population growth reduction.”
Ibinda, F., Bauni, E., Kariuki, S. M., Fegan, G., Lewa, J., Mwikamba, M., … Newton, C. R. J. C.. (2015). Incidence and risk factors for Neonatal Tetanus in admissions to Kilifi County hospital, Kenya. PLoS ONE
“Background neonatal tetanus (nt) is a preventable cause of mortality and neurological sequelae that occurs at higher incidence in resource-poor countries, presumably because of low maternal immunisation rates and unhygienic cord care practices. we aimed to determine changes in the incidence of nt, characterize and investigate the associated risk factors and mortality in a prospective cohort study including all admissions over a 15-year period at a county hospital on the kenyan coast, a region with relatively high historical nt rates within kenya. methods we assessed all neonatal admissions to kilifi county hospital in kenya (1999-2013) and identified cases of nt (standard clinical case definition) admitted during this time. poisson regression was used to examine change in incidence of nt using accurate denominator data from an area of active demographic surveillance. logistic regression was used to investigate the risk factors for nt and factors associated with mortality in nt amongst neonatal admissions. a subset of sera from mothers (n = 61) and neonates (n = 47) were tested for anti-tetanus antibodies. results there were 191 nt admissions, of whom 187 (98%) were home deliveries. incidence of nt declined significantly (incidence rate ratio: 0.85 (95% confidence interval 0.81-0.89), p<0.001) but the case fatality (62%) did not change over the study period (p = 0.536). younger infant age at admission (p = 0.001) was the only independent predictor of mortality. compared to neonatal hospital admittee controls, the proportion of home births was higher among the cases. sera tested for antitetanus antibodies showed most mothers (50/61, 82%) had undetectable levels of antitetanus antibodies, and most (8/9, 89%) mothers with detectable antibodies had a neonate without protective levels. conclusions incidence of nt in kilifi county has significantly reduced, with reductions following immunisation campaigns. our results suggest immunisation efforts are effective if sustained and efforts should continue to expand coverage.”
Melgaard, B., Mutie, D. M., & Kimani, G.. (1988). A cluster survey of mortality due to neonatal tetanus in Kenya. International Journal of Epidemiology
Maitha, E., Baya, C., & Bauni, E.. (2013). He burden and challenges of neonatal tetanus in Kilifi district, Kenya-2004-7. East African Medical Journal
Show/hide publication abstract
“Objectives: to describe the incidence of neonatal tetanus (nnt) and to describe the trends between 2004 and 2007; to show the geographical distribution of nnt in kilifi district and to describe routine immunisation coverage, catch-up campaigns and mop-ups. design: retrospective study setting: kilifi district, coastal kenya subjects: children diagnosed with neonatal tetanus (nnt) attending health facilities in the district. results: the incidence of nnt in kilifi increased from 0.6 in 2004 to 1.0 per 1000 live births in 2007. over 50% of kilifi district was a high risk area for nnt. it was a public health problem (>1 per 1000 live births) in 19/36 locations. immunisation (tt2+) increased from 4% in 2004 to 17% in 2007 for women of childbearing age and from 22% to 98% for pregnant women in the same period. all cases of nnt were delivered at home. 83% of nnt cases had potentially infectious materials applied to their cords. conclusions: neonatal tetanus was an increasing problem in kilifi district in the period 2004-2007. immunisation coverage was low for women of childbearing age. tt immunisation data capture was a mix-up (pregnant women and women of childbearing age) at various health facilities and was a challenge to accurate estimates of tt2+ immunisation coverage.”
Organización Mundial de la Salud, & Salud, O. M. de la. (2006). Tetanus vaccine; WHO position paper. Weekly Epidemilogical Report
Show/hide publication abstract
“Recent tetanus cases associated with male circumcision in eastern and southern africa (esa) prompted an examination of tetanus immunity by age and sex using multiplex serologic data from community surveys in three esa countries during 2012.2013. tetanus seroprotection was lower among children 5.14 years versus 1.4 years of age in kenya (66% versus 90%) and tanzania (66% versus 89%), but not in mozambique (91% versus 88%), where children receive two booster doses in school. among males . 15 years of age, tetanus seroprotection was lower than females in kenya (45% versus 96%), tanzania (28% versus 94%), and mozambique (64% versus 90%). tetanus immunity from infant vaccination doses wanes over time, and only women of reproductive age routinely receive booster doses. to prevent immunity gaps in older children, adolescents, and adult men, a life-course vaccination strategy is needed to provide the three recommended tetanus booster doses.”
βhCG
Talwar, G. P., Gupta, J. C., Rulli, S. B., Sharma, R. S., Nand, K. N., Bandivdekar, A. H., … Singh, P.. (2015). Advances in development of a contraceptive vaccine against human chorionic gonadotropin. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy
“Introduction: there is continuing need for contraceptives. according to world health organization, 210 million pregnancies occur each year, out of which some 80 million are unintended. a vaccine offering privacy and periodic intake would be an attractive proposition.areas covered: the article is a brief review of three vaccines developed against human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg) with progressively better attributes. clinical trials have proven in more than one country the complete safety and reversibility of the anti-hcg vaccine(s) in women. vaccination does not entail any disturbance in levels of reproductive tract hormones of the woman or any disturbance in menstrual regularity and bleeding profiles. phase ii clinical trials show the effective prevention of pregnancy in sexually active women of proven fertility. a recombinant vaccine amenable to industrial production has been developed; it induces substantially higher antibody titers in mice of four different genetic strains than those required to prevent pregnancy in women. rigorous toxicology studies have been completed on this vaccine in rodents and marmosets.expert opinion: this unique vaccine, requiring periodic intake and demonstrating no impairment of ovulation, hormonal profiles and menstrual regularity, is on the verge of final clinical trials under the aegis of the indian council of medical research and should be a valuable addition to the available contraceptives.”
Gupta, S. K., Shrestha, A., & Minhas, V.. (2014). Milestones in contraceptive vaccines development and hurdles in their application. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics
Stevens, V. C.. (1996). Progress in the development of human chorionic gonadotropin antifertility vaccines. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology
“Prototype human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg) vaccines have demonstrated the feasibility of effectively eliciting antibodies in women and inhibiting fertility in both humans and nonhuman primates. also, no serious side-effects due to immunization against self antigens have been revealed to date. however, the formulations so far tested in clinical trials are not suitable for widespread applications due to problems associated with complexities in production, burdensome application procedures, the need for frequent booster immunizations or cost of manufacture. current research efforts involve the development of delivery systems to permit annual or biannual intervals between immunizations for protection from pregnancy, procedures for mucosal immunizations, methods to reduce hypersensitivity and local reactions, and procedures for reducing the cost of production. recent progress in understanding the crystalline structure of the hcg molecule has stimulated further studies to define immunological epitope sequences that might constitute immunogens in future vaccines. the incorporation of vaccine components into biodegradable microspheres has resulted in formulations that elicit elevated antibody levels in rabbits for more than one year. preclinical and clinical studies with such formulations are planned. studies using totally synthetic peptide immunogens constituting hcg b-cell epitopes and ‘promiscuous’ t-cell epitopes from bacterial or viral proteins have been shown to be equally immunogenic as conjugates of hcg peptides with macromolecular carriers. still other peptide immunogens have been developed that can elicit antibody production without detectable proliferation of helper t cells. some of these peptides can induce systemic immunity from oral immunization or systemic injections. alternative vehicles for administering vaccine components with reduced local reactivity show promise for new vaccine formulations.”
Gupta, S. K., & Bansal, P.. (2010). Vaccines for immunological control of fertility. Reproductive Medicine and Biology
Talwar, G. P., Singh, O. M., Pal, R., Chatterjee, N., Sahai, P., Dhall, K., … Saxena, B. N.. (1994). A vaccine that prevents pregnancy in women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
“We report here results of clinical trials on a birth control vaccine, consisting of a heterospecies dimer of the β subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg) associated noncovalently with the α subunit of ovine luteinizing hormone and conjugated to tetanus and diphtheria toxoids as carriers, that induces antibodies of high avidity (k(a) ≃ 1010 m-1) against hcg. fertile women exposed to conception over 1224 cycles recorded only one pregnancy at antibody titers of >50 ng/ml (hcg bioneutralization capacity). the antibody response declines with time; fertility was regained when titers fell to <35 ng/ml. this study presents evidence of the feasibility of a vaccine for control of human fertility.”
Talwar, G. P., Gupta, J. C., Purswani, S., Vyas, H. K., Nand, K. N., Pal, P., & Ella, K. M.. (2021). A unique vaccine for birth control and treatment of advanced stage cancers secreting ectopically human chorionic gonadotropin. Exploration of Immunology
“This article is a tribute and homage to gerard chaouat who invited me to contribute this article. my years in france have remained very memorable to me. reviewed briefly is the vaccine that was made against human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg) to prevent unwanted pregnancy in sexually active women. it has now been developed as a genetically engineered recombinant vaccine and passed onto industry for its production under good manufacturing practices (gmp) conditions for confirmatory trials. the trials have received the approval of the drugs controller general of india. the trials have started but have been interrupted by the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) pandemic. this vaccine is likely to have another highly beneficial application in the treatment of cancers expressing ectopically hcg.”
Dr. Charles Morgan speaks to cadets and faculty at West Point about a range of topics, including psychology, neurobiology, and the science of humans at war. Dr. Morgan’s neurobiological and forensic research has established him as an international expert in post-traumatic stress disorder, eyewitness memory, and human performance under conditions of high stress.
The event was organized and hosted by the Modern War Institute at West Point.
Abstract
Less than a year after the global emergence of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, a novel vaccine platform based on mRNA technology was introduced to the market. Globally, around 13.38 billion COVID-19 vaccine doses of diverse platforms have been administered. To date, 72.3% of the total population has been injected at least once with a COVID-19 vaccine. As the immunity provided by these vaccines rapidly wanes, their ability to prevent hospitalization and severe disease in individuals with comorbidities has recently been questioned, and increasing evidence has shown that, as with many other vaccines, they do not produce sterilizing immunity, allowing people to suffer frequent re-infections. Additionally, recent investigations have found abnormally high levels of IgG4 in people who were administered two or more injections of the mRNA vaccines. HIV, Malaria, and Pertussis vaccines have also been reported to induce higher-than-normal IgG4 synthesis. Overall, there are three critical factors determining the class switch to IgG4 antibodies: excessive antigen concentration, repeated vaccination, and the type of vaccine used. It has been suggested that an increase in IgG4 levels could have a protecting role by preventing immune over-activation, similar to that occurring during successful allergen-specific immunotherapy by inhibiting IgE-induced effects. However, emerging evidence suggests that the reported increase in IgG4 levels detected after repeated vaccination with the mRNA vaccines may not be a protective mechanism; rather, it constitutes an immune tolerance mechanism to the spike protein that could promote unopposed SARS-CoV2 infection and replication by suppressing natural antiviral responses. Increased IgG4 synthesis due to repeated mRNA vaccination with high antigen concentrations may also cause autoimmune diseases, and promote cancer growth and autoimmune myocarditis in susceptible individuals.
URL: www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/11/5/991
Plants are promising candidates as bioreactors for the production of oral recombinant proteins in the biopharmaceutical industry. As an initial step toward provision of an oral vaccine against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), we have expressed a partial spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV in the cytosol of nuclear-transformed plants and in the chloroplasts of plastid-transformed plants. In the construction of both nuclear and plastid transformation vectors, a 2-kilobase nucleotide sequence encoding amino acids 1-658 of the SARS-CoV spike protein (S1) was modified with nucleotide changes, but not amino acid changes, to optimize codon usage for expression in plants. To investigate the subcellular localization of S1 during transient expression in tobacco leaves, a translational fusion consisting of S1 and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) was generated. Following agroinfiltration of tobacco leaves, analysis by laser confocal scanning microscopy revealed that the S1:GFP fusion protein was localized to the cytosol. In stable transgenic tobacco plants and lettuce plants generated by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, tobacco and lettuce leaves were observed to express the S1 at high levels from the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter with Northern blot analysis. When the S1 was expressed in transplastomic tobacco, S1 messenger RNA and its corresponding protein were detected on Northern and Western blot analyses, respectively. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of producing S1 in nuclear- and chloroplast-transformed plants, indicating its potential in subsequent development of a plant-derived and safe oral recombinant subunit vaccine against the SARS-CoV in edible plants.
Li, H.-Y., Ramalingam, S., & Chye, M.-L.. (2006). Accumulation of Recombinant SARS-CoV Spike Protein in Plant Cytosol and Chloroplasts Indicate Potential for Development of Plant-Derived Oral Vaccines. Experimental Biology and Medicine
“Plants are promising candidates as bioreactors for the production of oral recombinant proteins in the biopharmaceutical industry. as an initial step toward provision of an oral vaccine against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (sars-cov), we have expressed a partial spike (s) protein of sars-cov in the cytosol of nuclear-transformed plants and in the chloroplasts of plastid-transformed plants. in the construction of both nuclear and plastid transformation vectors, a 2-kilobase nucleotide sequence encoding amino acids 1–658 of the sars-cov spike protein (s1) was modified with nucleotide changes, but not amino acid changes, to optimize codon usage for expression in plants. to investigate the subcellular localization of s1 during transient expression in tobacco leaves, a translational fusion consisting of s1 and the green fluorescent protein (gfp) was generated. following agroinfiltration of tobacco leaves, analysis by laser confocal scanning microscopy revealed that the s1:gfp fusion protein was localized to the cytosol. in stable transgenic tobacco plants and lettuce plants generated by agrobacterium-mediated transformation, tobacco and lettuce leaves were observed to express the s1 at high levels from the cauliflower mosaic virus 35s promoter with northern blot analysis. when the s1 was expressed in transplastomic tobacco, s1 messenger rna and its corresponding protein were detected on northern and western blot analyses, respectively. our results demonstrate the feasibility of producing s1 in nuclear- and chloroplast-transformed plants, indicating its potential in subsequent development of a plant-derived and safe oral recombinant subunit vaccine against the sars-cov in edible plants.”
Pogrebnyak, N., Golovkin, M., Andrianov, V., Spitsin, S., Smirnov, Y., Egolf, R., & Koprowski, H.. (2005). Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) S protein production in plants: Development of recombinant vaccine. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
“In view of a recent spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars), there is a high demand for production of a vaccine to prevent this disease. recent studies indicate that sars-coronavirus (cov) spike protein (s protein) and its truncated fragments are considered the best candidates for generation of the recombinant vaccine. toward the development of a safe, effective, and inexpensive vaccine candidate, we have expressed the n-terminal fragment of sars-cov s protein (s1) in tomato and low-nicotine tobacco plants. incorporation of the s1 fragment into plant genomes as well as its transcription was confirmed by pcr and rt-pcr analyses. high levels of expression of recombinant s1 protein were observed in several transgenic lines by western blot analysis using specific antibodies. plant-derived antigen was evaluated to induce the systemic and mucosal immune responses in mice. mice showed significantly increased levels of sars-cov-specific iga after oral ingestion of tomato fruits expressing s1 protein. sera of mice parenterally primed with tobacco-derived s1 protein revealed the presence of sars-cov-specific igg as detected by western blot and elisa analysis.”
Li, H.-Y., & Chye, M.-L.. (2009). Use of GFP to Investigate Expression of Plant-Derived Vaccines. In Methods in Molecular Biology
Fifth-generation warfare (5GW) is warfare that is conducted primarily through non-kinetic military action, such as social engineering, misinformation, cyberattacks, along with emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and fully autonomous systems. Fifth generation warfare has been described by Daniel Abbot as a war of “information and perception”. There is no widely agreed upon definition of fifth-generation warfare, and it has been rejected by some scholars, including William S. Lind, who was one of the original theorists of fourth-generation warfare.
History
The term ‘fifth-generation warfare’ was first used in 2003 by Robert Steele. The following year, Lind criticised the concept, arguing that the fourth generation had yet to fully materialize.
In 2008, the term was used by Terry Terriff, who presented the 2003 ricin letters as a potential example, but stated that he was not entirely sure if it was a fifth-generation attack, claiming “we may not recognize it as it resolves around us. Or we might look at several alternative futures and see each as fifth generation.” Terriff argued that while fifth-generation warfare allows “super-empowered individuals” to make political statements through terrorism, they lack the political power to actually have their demands met.
Characteristics
Alex P. Schmid said that fifth-generation warfare is typified by its “omnipresent battlefield”, and the fact that people engaged in it do not necessarily use military force, instead employing a mixture of kinetic and non-kinetic force. In the 1999 book Unrestricted Warfare, by colonels Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui of the People’s Liberation Army, they noted that in the years since the 1991 Gulf War, conventional military violence had decreased, which correlated to an increase in “political, economic, and technological violence”, which they argued could be more devastating than a conventional war.[8] On the contrary, Thomas P. M. Barnett believes that the effectiveness of fifth-generational warfare is exaggerated, as terrorism conducted by individuals, such as Timothy McVeigh or Ted Kaczynski, lacks the support of more organized movements. This was seconded by George Michael, who noted that in the United States, gang violence was responsible for far more deaths than lone wolf terrorist attacks.
L.C. Rees described the nature of fifth generation warfare as difficult to define in itself, alluding to the third law of science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke – “any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.”
Nadeem, M., Mustafa, G., & Kakar, A.. (2021). Fifth Generation Warfare and its Challenges to Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of International Affairs
Show/hide publication abstract
“This research paper aims to analyze fifth generation warfare and its challenges to pakistan. in modern era, wars are not declared or waged conventionally: instead it is instigated by clandestine agents using military, non-military, media, cyber tools, information operations, ngos, non-state actors, intelligence agencies, propaganda, economic tools, insurgency and terrorism. the adversaries have been waging fgw against pakistan for long. pakistan became nuclear power in 1998 and declaring conventional battle remains very hard for adversaries. hence, they are using tools of fifth generation warfare against pakistan to destabilize it internally and gain their nefarious designs. the enemies are behind conspiracies to destabilize pakistan internally and undermine its image in global community, sponsoring, financing and training terrorists to conduct covert operations within pakistan’s territory. in present era of hybrid warfare, pakistan is facing threats to its national unity due to negative role of some foreign countries. at present, media campaigns against pakistan are at full swing. the enemies have been spreading propaganda, misleading reports, and false news to damage national unity of pakistan. they are trying to influence international institutions, particularly fatf to portray pakistan as terrorist sponsoring state. pakistan is being subjected to fifth generation warfare massively. this research paper highlights challenges of fgw pakistan is presently facing”
Krishnan, A.. (2022). Fifth Generation Warfare, Hybrid Warfare, and Gray Zone Conflict: A Comparison. Journal of Strategic Security
“Strategists have noted substantial changes in warfare since the end of the cold war. they have proposed several concepts and theories to account for the fact that the practice of war has largely departed from a clausewitzian understanding of war and the centrality of physical violence in it. emerging modes of conflict are less focused on the instrumental use of force to achieve political objectives and are more centered on notions of perception management, narratives, asymmetry or irregular conflict, the adversarial uses of norms, and covert and ambiguous uses of force. this article aims to systematically compare three more recent theories of war or political conflict, namely fifth generation warfare (5gw), hybrid warfare (hw), and gray zone conflict. the article demonstrates that although they have the same intellectual roots, they are also different in terms of what they suggest about the nature of contemporary and near future conflict. each of them can enrich our understanding of contemporary warfare, which will be the key to mastering these new modes of conflict short of (theater conventional) war.”
QURESHI, W. A.. (2019). Fourth- and Fifth-Generation Warfare: Technology and Perceptions.. San Diego International Law Journal
Show/hide publication abstract
“The composition of warfare is changing. there is an increasing transformation in the traditional aspects of waging a war: conventional techniques of warfare are in decline and newer tactics and tools of warfare, such as information warfare, asymmetric warfare, media propaganda, and hybrid warfare, are filling the gap, blurring the lines between combatant and noncombatant, and between wartime and peacetime. the basic framework of modern warfare was elaborated by carl von clausewitz in his magnus opus on war. he defined modern warfare between states as ‘a duel on larger scale,’ and explained its purpose as ‘a continuation of politics by other means,’ with its core elements of ‘rationality of the state, probability in military command, and rage of the population.’ building on clausewitz’s work, william s. lind distinguished between four generations of warfare since the peace of westphalia in 1648, each generation having its own way of fighting war. this article intends to explore lind’s fourthgeneration warfare and daniel h. abbott’s fifth-generation warfare. it provides different interpretations of fourth-generation warfare (4gw) by several scholars. first, it explains that 4gw is asymmetric warfare fought by nonstate actors and by nonstate cultural groups, where asymmetric warfare and shadow wars are waged by nonstate actors and mercenaries for the political interests of aggressive states. then, it provides additional interpretations of 4gw, which is often understood as fighting on a moral level employing light infantry. by contrast, other scholars believe that 4gw is fought with the tools of information and technology using cyberspace. afterwards, this article explores how to fight 4gw and how it is being fought. the article also investigates abbott’s fifth-generation warfare, a war of perceptions, and explains how to fight 5gw and how it is being fought. furthermore, this article explains how technological progression is used as a tool of modern warfare. [abstract from author]”
Rehman, M. A.. (2022). Media and Fifth-generation Warfare: A Case Study of Indian Disinformation Campaign Against Balochistan. Journal of Mass Communication Department, Dept of …
Show/hide publication abstract
“In the post-truth era, media has emerged as a vital propaganda tool of fifth-generation warfare. balochistan being one of the most important geostrategic locations in the region …”
Patel, A.. (2019). Fifth-Generation Warfare and the Definitions of Peace. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare
“The intent of this paper is to argue that postmodern warfare and fifth-generation warfare impact traditional notions of peace and conflict and therefore, a transformative approach to the definition of peace is required. the main objectives of this paper are three-fold: the first is to contend that where traditional notions of peace include the absence of kinetic violence exclusively, fifth-generation warfare and postmodern warfare encompass several different forms of combat; the second objective is to argue that in fifth-generation warfare conflict is perceived as not only intrastate disagreements but conflict between cultural groups, taken across transnational borders. finally, considering the above arguments, this paper concludes by suggesting that peacebuilding requires a need for peacebuilders to adopt a new definition of conflict and peace. additionally, they need to concern themselves with changing the ‘belligerent and antagonistic attitudes that foster violent conflict at the grassroots level’ (bellamy et al, 2010).”
Jahangir, J., & Bashir, N.. (2022). Fifth Generation and Hybrid Warfare: Response Strategy of Pakistan. Academic Journal of Social Sciences (AJSS )
“The current study is designed to find out the nature and level of the fifth generation warfare in pakistan. pakistan is facing security challenges on account of terrorism and regional security. it is the time to understand the latest trends in the fifth generation warfare war and implications for pakistan. threats to pakistan’s stability by the hostile countries and their proxies by using 5gw and its ramification needed to be deeply analyzed. the objectives of this study are the conception of the term, comparison between different generations of warfare, mechanisms and techniques used in it and implications on the security of pakistan and response strategies. qualitative research design was implemented with data collection from secondary sources. the findings of the study show that the concept of 5gw is very difficult to comprehend and define, yet it has been grasped differently. the all generations of warfare are basically on two major areas i.e. targeting certain type of ideology and developing modern technology and warfare equipment’s. the study concluded that pakistan is currently facing higher level of fifth generation warfare from india mainly in four major domains i.e. conventional war, diplomatic challenges, misinformation and economic suppression. the findings of the current study are of prime importance for framing a constructive policy in order to counter the 5gw threats. by delineating key issues and challenges, this research presents some recommendation to improve the countering strategies regarding 5gw in the context of pakistan. ”
Shabbir, T., Farooqui, Y., Waheed, S., … S. U.-I., & 2020, undefined. (2020). ’Open Data’Technology and Fifth Generation Warfare (A Pakistan Perspective). Researchgate.Net
Show/hide publication abstract
“Warfare’s structure is evolving. the traditional facets of warfare are undergoing a transformation: conventional methods of warfare are dwindling, while newer strategies and technologies of warfare, such as intelligence warfare, asymmetric warfare, media propaganda, and hybrid warfare, are filling the void, blurring the distinctions between combatant and noncombatant, as well as between war and peacetime. carl von clausewitz established the fundamental structure of modern warfare in his magnum opus on battle. he described modern state warfare as ‘a duel on a larger scale’ and clarified its intent as ‘a continuation of politics through other means,’ with its core elements of ‘state rationality, military command chance, and populist anger.’ william s. lind, building on clausewitz’s thesis, characterized four centuries of warfare after the peace of westphalia in 1648, each with its own style of warfare. lind’s fourth-generation warfare and daniel h. abbott’s fifth-generation warfare are the subjects of this article. it discusses various scholars’ explanations of fourth-generation warfare (4gw). to begin, it defines 4gw as asymmetric warfare conducted by nonstate actors and nonstate culture groups, in which nonstate actors and mercenaries conduct asymmetric warfare and shadow wars in the strategic interests of aggressive states. the article then discusses alternative meanings of 4gw, which is often interpreted as combat on a moral basis with light infantry. by comparison, some researchers claim that 4gw is waged through knowledge and technological resources deployed across cyberspace. following that, this article discusses how to combat 4gw and how it is currently being waged. additionally, the article examines abbott’s fifth-generation warfare, a battle of expectations, and discusses how to combat 5gw and how it is now being waged. additionally, this article discusses how technical advancement is used as a weapon in modern warfare. lastly, this article explained how some of the tasks listed previously could be outsourced by the government of pakistan, introducing a new player in the ecosystem. there are lots of data points that could have a new perspective on the economy and massive public databases from towns, countries and government departments. the collection of data has been performed using qualitative and quantitative approaches. it is most likely that the using the principle of “access to open data could enable the government of pakistan to improve …”
Layton, P.. (2017). Fifth Generation Air Warfare Working Paper 43. Royal Australian Air Force Air Power Development Centre
Show/hide publication abstract
“There is now a great deal to the concept of fifth-generation air warfare. the term has come to encompass and combine several important ideas, in particular: network-centric thinking, the combat cloud operational construct, multi-domain battle and fusion warfare. fifth-generation air warfare is now a multifaceted concept with real underpinnings. this paper initially explores the ideas on which fifth-generation air warfare is based with the second chapter extending this to discuss some of the practical difficulties in actually implementing these enticing visions. chapter three looks at the application of fifth-generation air warfare to battle network and hybrid wars. together the two types of conflict illuminate some of the fundamental warfighting issues associated with fifth-generation air warfare. chapter four considers how china and russia approach fifth-generation air warfare. their particular strategic cultures and national requirements mean the two countries have adopted unique approaches to fifth-generation air warfare but in this there are insights potentially useful to others. the short conclusion then brings this complicated story together.”
Layton, P.. (2018). Fifth-Generation Air Warfare. Australian Defence Force Journal
Show/hide publication abstract
“El vencedor en las guerras de 5a generación será aquél que sea capaz de ejecutar con mayor rapidez el ciclo ooda (observación, orientación, decisión y acción) de john boyd. la clave residirá en el proceso de orientación, en construir más rápidamente que el adversario una imagen precisa del campo de batalla (conciencia situacional). las guerras de 5a generación se basarán en una red que gestione la información, la detección, los efectos y el mando o decisión; en una arquitectura ‘combat cloud’ que mejore la conciencia situacional a través de una ‘picture’ distribuida, en la que la pérdida de un sistema no afecte catastróficamente a la misión, facilitando enganches a mayor distancia y poniendo a disposición de todas las plataformas las capacidades ofrecidas por el resto; en un concepto multidominio, en el que la sinergia provenga del empleo de diferentes capacidades en o desde distintos dominios, cuyo efecto sea mayor que la suma de los efectos que cada una de ellas produciría por separado, y en la fusión de un gran volumen de información, que permita tomar decisiones con mayor rapidez que el adversario, dentro de una estructura de ‘mando centralizado, control distribuido y ejecución descentralizada’. donde los datos y la conectividad serán clave.”
Tahir, I. A., & Afridi, M. K.. (2019). Fifth Generations Warfare (5GW)-The New Dimensions of Enemies Launched Warfare and Security Concern of Pakistan. Global Regional Review
“The advent of internet, its confluence with communication and information technology (c&it) has given an exponential rise to generate waves of hyper information thus providing an opportunity to the enemies to launch transitional level of fifth generation warfare (5gw) from various platforms. the present internet dominated age coupled with mediasine qua non usage of deceitful information, baffled news and fabricated themes launched through hostile think tanks and hostile intelligence agencies through their spoofing agents under cover of media imposters, media memes and scintillating campaigns with covert commercial clientele. such slanderers aim to undermine state capacity and capability to act and react during odds/under tense situations. the enemy hired slanderers, their tittle tale imposters propagate the sugar coated lethal contents to the masses especially the youth has many varying dimension and blatant angles corroborated into 5gw”
Barnett, D. K.. (2010). The Fallacies of Fourth and Fifth Generation Warfare. Small Wars Journal
Show/hide publication abstract
“In evaluating current warfighting trends (and reconciliatory attempts to understand said trends), it appears the conceptual model of fourth-generation warfare (4gw) (and, by extension, fifth-generation warfare (5gw)) has achieved a level of dominant preeminence to the point of doctrinal establishment. granted, there are frequent (and cogent) counterarguments against inherent 4gw precepts, but said arguments appear to face an almost uphill battle as 4gw/5gw concepts have permeated through the irregular warfighting spectrum, becoming established as ” common knowledge. ” as these terms have become commonplace, frequently spoken with self-assured absolution, it is rather troubling that these concepts of future warfare, intended to reveal (as proponents argue) the myopic stasis of ” conventional ” understanding, have themselves become a closed and limited paradigm. thus, the inherent problem with 4gw/5gw (and the difficulty in countering these concepts) is the nature of their own conventionality. one of the single greatest misconceptions of the theory of 4gw is the overly-simplistic reconciliation of the history of warfare into four, distinctly delineated (and linearly evaluated) categories (or five, as 5gw has conceptually developed), the first culminating just two centuries ago. 1 such a view provides only the most superficial of treatments regarding the history of warfare, any deep examination of which reveals those elements of each ” generation ” appear/disappear/reappear on the world stage as circumstances dictate. of course, the tools have changed and it appears that proponents of 4gw/5gw theory placed too much weight on the value of said tools (i.e. the tools dictate the concepts). while it is true that tools can augment concepts, those basic attributes of any discipline, the most ” core ” of concepts, don’t change and arguably dictate the development and implementation of said tools. furthermore, a great deal of value is placed on the seeming modernity of 4gw’s underlying theory, to include its conceptualization. as hammes states: ” fourth generation warfare uses all available networks – political, economic, social, and military – to convince the enemy’s political decision makers that their strategic goals are either unachievable or too costly for the perceived benefit…the only medium that can change a person’s mind is information. therefore, information is the key element of any 4gw strategy. ” 2 however, any student of sun tzu can see these same ar…”
Layton Peter. (2018). Fifth-Generation Air Warfare. Australian Defence Force Journal
Show/hide publication abstract
“El vencedor en las guerras de 5a generación será aquél que sea capaz de ejecutar con mayor rapidez el ciclo ooda (observación, orientación, decisión y acción) de john boyd. la clave residirá en el proceso de orientación, en construir más rápidamente que el adversario una imagen precisa del campo de batalla (conciencia situacional). las guerras de 5a generación se basarán en una red que gestione la información, la detección, los efectos y el mando o decisión; en una arquitectura ‘combat cloud’ que mejore la conciencia situacional a través de una ‘picture’ distribuida, en la que la pérdida de un sistema no afecte catastróficamente a la misión, facilitando enganches a mayor distancia y poniendo a disposición de todas las plataformas las capacidades ofrecidas por el resto; en un concepto multidominio, en el que la sinergia provenga del empleo de diferentes capacidades en o desde distintos dominios, cuyo efecto sea mayor que la suma de los efectos que cada una de ellas produciría por separado, y en la fusión de un gran volumen de información, que permita tomar decisiones con mayor rapidez que el adversario, dentro de una estructura de ‘mando centralizado, control distribuido y ejecución descentralizada’. donde los datos y la conectividad serán clave.”
Vancouver, C.. (2018). Contemporary Conflict & The Fifth Generation of Warfare. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare
Turunen, A.. (2018). Alternative media ecosystem as a fifth-generation warfare supra-combination. In Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation: Science and Engineering
“The evolution in information technology has created new cognitive and social platforms where the amount of interhuman interaction is increasingly present. the development of methods of war constantly follows the trends of society, and therefore, the military interaction in the information, cognitive, and social domains such as in the social media should logically increase. this essay will compare the recent findings on information warfare to the theoretical basis of the nature of contemporary warfare. the framework of the essay will be fifth-generation warfare theory, network warfare theory, and kate starbird’s research on alternative news ecosystem. the argument of the essay is based on how the recent finding on the presence of alternative news ecosystem is compatible with the 5gw framework and hence opens the discussion for the security and military dimension of the alt-news phenomenon.”
Yun, M., & Kim, E.. (2022). Cyber Cognitive Warfare as an Emerging New War Domain and Its Strategies and Tactics. Korean Journal of Defense Analysis
“Cognitive warfare has become the crucial war domain that determines the outcome of modern wars. joseph nye pointed out, ‘in today’s war, it is not whose army wins, but whose story wins,’ emphasizing the importance of narratives to occupy human minds and hearts. this has been repeatedly observed in the ‘war on terror’ in afghanistan and iraq–syria and the russia–ukraine war in 2014 and 2022. the strategic importance of winning human cognition by the use of non-kinetic influence operation had been similarly emphasized in the propositions of fifth-generation warfare and gerasimov’s suggestions. by recognizing the importance of cognitive warfare, this paper attempts to address the concept of cognitive warfare and suggest strategic and tactical principles for its practical operation and use. the concept of cognitive warfare is still ambiguous, blurring together with related concepts such as psychological warfare, information warfare, cyberwar, active measures, and reflexive control. besides, the substantial conceptual differences between the u.s.–west and russia have added more confusion. thus, some clarification to distinguish the concept of cognitive warfare from other related terms seems necessary. meanwhile, neither has there been any concrete proposition of how cognitive warfare works strategically and tactically. the literature and earlier reports only introduced various specific effects and techniques of cognitive operations. nevertheless, how these effects and techniques are strategically– tactically integrated and jointly applied for a cohesive cognitive military operation is yet to be proposed. this paper responds to two such issues of cognitive warfare. in future warfare, the weight of cognitive warfare is anticipated to increase further. hopefully, this paper will be a stepping stone to rouse interest in cognitive warfare and the development of its strategies and tactics.”
Hammes, T. X.. (2007). Fourth Generation Warfare Evolves, Fifth Emerges. Military Review
Show/hide publication abstract
“While there is no generally agreed upon definition of 4gw, according to the definition i wrote in 2003, fourth generation warfare uses all available networks-political, economic, social, and military-to convince the enemy’s political decision makers that their strategic goals are either unachievable or too costly for the perceived benefit. while the west was convening conferences to make promises about aid at some future time, hezbollah representatives hit the streets with cash money and physical assistance. while the chinese and vietnamese insurgencies were hierarchies that reflected both the social organizations of those societies and the dominant business and military organizations of the time, recent insurgencies have been networked coalitions of the willing.n8 it is essential to remember that not only will smallpox cause an exceptional number of deaths, but it will also shut down world trade until the epidemic is controlled or burns itself out.”
CASIS. (2019). A Brief History of Social Movements in North America. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare
“The purpose of this analysis is to differentiate social movements. in this instance, we will be using the hippie/counterculture movements during the 1960s and 1970s in canada, and those that are occurring in the second decade of the twenty-first century. in particular, this analysis distinguishes right-wing extremist movements in 2016 from groups like the hippie movement and the black panther party movement. specific reference will be made to contrast the social movements of the twenty-first century that are non-political in nature but are identity-based, versus movements during the 60s and 70s that were political by design and intent. due to the non-political nature of twenty-first century violent transnational social movements, they might be characterized as fifth generation warfare, which we identify as identity-based social movements in violent conflict with other identity based social movements, this violence may be soft or hard. ‘soft violence damages the fabric of relationships between communities as entrenches or highlights the superiority of one group over another without kinetic impact. soft violence is harmful activities to others which stops short of physical violence’. (kelshall, 2019) hard violence is then recognized as when soft violence tactics result in physical violence. insurgencies are groups that challenge and/or resist the authority of the state. there are different levels of insurgencies; and on the extreme end, there is the resistance of systemic authority.”
Kelshall, C. M.. (2022). Fifth Generation Warfare? Violent Transnational Social Movements as Security Disruptors
Liles, S.. (2007). Cyber warfare compared to fourth and fifth generation warfare as applied to the Internet. In International Symposium on Technology and Society, Proceedings
Lee, S.-J., & Park, M.-H.. (2017). Fifth Generation Warfare (5GW) – Concept and Its Implication to Korea”s National Security –. Korean Journal of Military Affairs
