The term “conspiracy theory” as a psycholinguistic tool for memetic hegemony

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The conspiracy theory meme as a tool of cultural hegemony: A critical discourse analysis

by Rankin, James Edwin, Jr., Ph.D.

Abstract (Summary)

Those rejecting the official accounts of significant suspicious and impactful events are often labeled conspiracy theorists and the alternative explanations they propose are often referred to as conspiracy theories. These labels are often used to dismiss the beliefs of those individuals who question potentially hegemonic control of what people believe. The conspiracy theory concept functions as an impediment to legitimate discursive examination of conspiracy suspicions. The effect of the label appears to constrain even the most respected thinkers. This impediment is particularly problematic in academia, where thorough, objective analysis of information is critical to uncovering truth, and where members of the academy are typically considered among the most important of epistemic authorities. This dissertation tracked the development and use of such terms as pejoratives used to shut down critical thinking, analysis, and challenges to authority. This was accomplished using critical discourse analysis as a research methodology. Evidence suggesting government agents were instrumental in creating the pejorative meme conspiracy theorist was found in contemporary media. Tracing the evolution of the conspiracy theory meme and its use as a pejorative silencer may heighten awareness of its use in this manner and diminish its impact.

The term “conspiracy theory” was invented and put into public discourse by the CIA in 1964 in order to discredit the many skeptics who challenged the Warren Commission’s conclusion that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by a lone gunman named Lee Harvey Oswald, who himself was assassinated while in police custody before he could be questioned. The CIA used its friends in the media to launch a campaign to make suspicion of the Warren Commission report a target of ridicule and hostility. This campaign was “one of the most successful propaganda initiatives of all time.”

This writes political science professor Lance deHaven-Smith, in his peer-reviewed book which was published by the University of Texas Press. He reports the story of how the CIA succeeded in creating in the public mind uncritical, reflexive, automatic, (System 1) stigmatization of those who challenge official government explanations (cf. ostracism).

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Lance DeHaven-Smith


According to Prof. DeHaven (see lecture above) the term “conspiracy theory” was first used in a scholarly book around 1913 by Charles Beard who used the phrase “the conspiracy theory of the 14th amendment”. DeHaven argues that if a wealthy women died because she fell in the shower and her husband inherits all her money we are automatically suspicious because of the low probability (base rate) of the incidence. If a similar situation happens again and the same husband is involved we are obviously even more suspicious. However, the term “conspiracy theory” prevents rational discourse (and rational thinking). DeHaven suggests the term “state crimes against democracy”. He makes the point that if we do not have a word for a crime it is very difficult to discuss it, especially if argumentators are discredited and ostracized as “conspiracy theorists” and categorized next to flat-earth believers (viz. invalid associations are created to facilitate superficial social categorisation).

Peer reviewed references on conspiracy theories – State crimes against democracy (multiple conspiracies are “organized crime”)

Related References

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The art of deception

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The Art of Deception: Training for a New Generation of Online Covert Operations

theintercept.com/document/2014/02/24/art-deception-training-new-generation-online-covert-operations/
The Human Science Operations Cell (HSOC) is a division of the British signals intelligence agency, Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ). The HSOC focus on “online human intelligence” and “strategic influence and disruption.”[1]

The existence of the HSOC was revealed as part of the global surveillance disclosures by the former National Security Agency contractor, Edward Snowden.[1] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Science_Operations_Cell

Fake news?

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Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., … Zittrain, J. L.. (2018). The science of fake news. Science

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American psychological association & CIA: Science of Deception Workshop

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APA Works with CIA and RAND to Hold Science of Deception Workshop

On July 17-18, RAND Corp. and the APA hosted a workshop entitled the “Science of Deception: Integration of Practice and Theory” with generous funding from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The workshop provided an opportunity to bring together individuals with a need to understand and use deception in the service of national defense/security with those who investigate the phenomena and mechanisms of deception. Meeting at RAND headquarters in Arlington, VA, the workshop drew together approximately 40 individuals including research psychologists, psychiatrists, neurologists who study various aspects of deception and representatives from the CIA, FBI and Department of Defense with interests in intelligence operations. In addition, representatives from the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and the Science and Technology Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security were present. Following brief introductions and welcoming remarks from Kevin O’Connell, Director of the Intelligence Policy Center within RAND’s National Security Research Division, workshop participants divided into break-out groups to discuss thematic scenarios following a format used in a previous conference on counterterrorism held at the FBI Academy in February 2002.

www.apa.org/about/gr/science/spin/2003/07/also-issue.aspx

Martin Luther King

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The United States is “The Greatest Purveyor of Violence in the World Today” ~Martin Luther King

Frady, M.. (2003). Martin Luther King. Vita Breve
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Nelson Mandela

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If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America. ~Nelson Mandela

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Invisible facts and perceptual illusions – David Copperfield vanishing the Statue of Liberty

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Large facts can be made invisible

de Gardelle, V., Sackur, J., & Kouider, S.. (2009). Perceptual illusions in brief visual presentations. Consciousness and Cognition

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Framing

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In the social sciences, framing comprises a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives on how individuals, groups, and societies, organize, perceive, and communicate about reality. Framing involves social construction of a social phenomenon – by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, or other actors and organizations. Recent findings in the domain of embodied cognition and conceptual metaphor theory are important theoretical frameworks in this context.

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Ebbinghaus illusion

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he Ebbinghaus illusion or Titchener circles is an optical illusion of relative size perception. Named for its discoverer, the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), the illusion was popularized in the English-speaking world by Edward B. Titchener in a 1901 textbook of experimental psychology, hence its alternative name.[1] In the best-known version of the illusion, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other, and one is surrounded by large circles while the other is surrounded by small circles. As a result of the juxtaposition of circles, the central circle surrounded by large circles appears smaller than the central circle surrounded by small circles.

Recent work suggests that two other critical factors involved in the perception of the Ebbinghaus illusion are the distance of the surrounding circles from the central circle and the completeness of the annulus, which makes the illusion comparable in nature to the Delboeuf illusion. Regardless of relative size, if the surrounding circles are closer to the central circle, the central circle appears larger and if the surrounding circles are far away, the central circle appears smaller. While the distance variable appears to be an active factor in the perception of relative size, the size of the surrounding circles limits how close they can be to the central circle, resulting in many studies confounding the two variables.[1]


Further References

Franz, V. H., Bülthoff, H. H., & Fahle, M.. (2003). Grasp effects of the Ebbinghaus illusion: Obstacle avoidance is not the explanation. Experimental Brain Research

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Haffenden, A. M., Schiff, K. C., & Goodale, M. A.. (2001). The dissociation between perception and action in the Ebbinghaus illusion: Nonillusory effects of pictorial cues on grasp. Current Biology

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Franz, V. H., & Gegenfurtner, K. R.. (2008). Grasping visual illusions: Consistent data and no dissociation. In Cognitive Neuropsychology

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Franz, V. H., Gegenfurtner, K. R., Bülthoff, H. H., & Fahle, M.. (2000). Grasping visual illusions: No evidence for a dissociation between perception and action. Psychological Science

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Song, C., Schwarzkopf, D. S., & Rees, G.. (2011). Interocular induction of illusory size perception. BMC Neuroscience

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Doherty, M. J., Campbell, N. M., Tsuji, H., & Phillips, W. A.. (2010). The Ebbinghaus illusion deceives adults but not young children. Developmental Science

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Rose, D., & Bressan, P.. (2002). Going round in circles: Shape effects in the Ebbinghaus illusion. Spatial Vision

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de Fockert, J., Davidoff, J., Fagot, J., Parron, C., & Goldstein, J.. (2007). More Accurate Size Contrast Judgments in the Ebbinghaus Illusion by a Remote Culture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance

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Metin, B., & Tavil, A.. (2014). Environmental assessment of external wall cladding construction. Architectural Science Review

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Parron, C., & Fagot, J.. (2007). Comparison of Grouping Abilities in Humans (Homo sapiens) and Baboons (Papio papio) With the Ebbinghaus Illusion. Journal of Comparative Psychology

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Plodowski, A., & Jackson, S. R.. (2001). Vision: Getting to grips with the Ebbinghaus illusion. Current Biology

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Kopiske, K. K., Bruno, N., Hesse, C., Schenk, T., & Franz, V. H.. (2016). The functional subdivision of the visual brain: Is there a real illusion effect on action? A multi-lab replication study. Cortex

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Nakamura, N., Watanabe, S., & Fujita, K.. (2008). Pigeons perceive the Ebbinghaus-Titchener circles as an assimilation illusion.. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes

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Danckert, J. A., Sharif, N., Haffenden, A. M., Schiff, K. C., & Goodale, M. A.. (2002). A temporal analysis of grasping in the Ebbinghaus illusion: Planning versus online control. Experimental Brain Research

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Pickett, C. L.. (2001). The effects of entitativity beliefs on implicit comparisons between group members. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

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Haffenden, A. M., & Goodale, M. A.. (1998). The effect of pictorial illusion on prehension and perception. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

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Sovrano, V. A., Albertazzi, L., & Rosa Salva, O.. (2014). The Ebbinghaus illusion in a fish (Xenotoca eiseni). Animal Cognition

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Glover, S., & Dixon, P.. (2002). Dynamic effects of the Ebbinghaus illusion in grasping: Support for a planning/control model of action. Perception and Psychophysics

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Káldy, Z., & Kovács, I.. (2003). Visual context integration is not fully developed in 4-year-old children. Perception

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Byosiere, S. E., Feng, L. C., Woodhead, J. K., Rutter, N. J., Chouinard, P. A., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C.. (2017). Visual perception in domestic dogs: susceptibility to the Ebbinghaus–Titchener and Delboeuf illusions. Animal Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1067-1
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Duemmler, T., Franz, V. H., Jovanovic, B., & Schwarzer, G.. (2008). Effects of the Ebbinghaus illusion on children’s perception and grasping. Experimental Brain Research

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Massaro, D. W., & Anderson, N. H.. (1971). Judgmental model of the Ebbinghaus illusion. Journal of Experimental Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/h0031158
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Roberts, B., Harris, M. G., & Yates, T. A.. (2005). The roles of inducer size and distance in the Ebbinghaus illusion (Titchener circles). Perception

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1068/p5273
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Lumen naturale

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The natural ability to understand – to shine light on things – a natural light within.
“Lumen naturale” is a Latin term that translates to “natural light.” In the context of the Enlightenment, philosophers often used this concept to represent reason and knowledge that comes from nature and human intellect rather than relying solely on religious or traditional authorities.

Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of reason and rationality to discover truths about the world. They saw the human mind as capable of understanding and improving society through the application of logic and scientific inquiry. The term “lumen naturale” reflects the idea that there is an inherent, natural capacity for humans to gain knowledge and insight through reason, independent of divine revelation.

This concept played a significant role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the Enlightenment, emphasizing the importance of human agency and critical thinking in the pursuit of knowledge and progress.


Further References

Jacquette, D.. (1996). Descartes’ Lumen Naturale and the Cartesian Circle. Philosophy and Theology, 9(3), 273–320.

→ Alphanumerical DOI: 10.5840/philtheol199693/41 • DOI URL • Download via SciHub • Translation • Forward • Format • BibTeX • Citation Network Graph • Scite AI

“The author argues that descartes is not trapped inside the cartesian circle. the essay rehearses descartes’ argument against the ‘evil demon’ hypothesis. the so-called cartesian circle is described and some of the most prominent discussions of the problem are evaluated. such arguments tend either to leave descartes in the circle, or themselves depend upon distinctions that in the end lead to descartes claiming something less than metaphysical certainty for his system. the author argues that descartes’ real archimedian point is the light of nature, and that his project is to extend the certainty of the light of nature to those ideas which are clear and distinct. using this interpretation of descartes, the author returns to the accounts of the critics to account for their mischaracterization of descartes’ reasoning as circular.”
Apel, M.. (1950). Lagarde, Paul Anton de– lumen naturale. In Philosophisches Wörterbuch (pp. 151–157). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter

→ Alphanumerical DOI: 10.1515/9783111380001-012 • DOI URL • Download via SciHub • Forward • Format • BibTeX • Citation Network Graph • Scite AI

Opahle, O.. (1952). Die Lehre vom „lumen naturale“ in ihrer Bedeutung für die Pädagogik. Vierteljahrsschrift Für Wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, 28(2), 115–124.

→ Alphanumerical DOI: 10.30965/25890581-02802005 • DOI URL • Download via SciHub • Forward • Format • BibTeX • Citation Network Graph • Scite AI