Obedience to authority

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The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.More at Wikipedia



Further References

Gridley, M., & Jenkins, W. J.. (2017). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9781912282524
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Milgram, S.. (1965). Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority. Human Relations

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/001872676501800105
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Blass, T.. (1999). The milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority. Journal of Applied Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x
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Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A.. (1992). A relational model of authority in groups. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60283-X
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Russell, N. J. C.. (2011). Milgram’s obedience to authority experiments: Origins and early evolution. British Journal of Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1348/014466610X492205
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Milgram, S.. (1974). Obedience to authority : an experimental view. American Psychologist

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1115/1.2183802
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Passini, S., & Morselli, D.. (2009). Authority relationships between obedience and disobedience. New Ideas in Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2008.06.001
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Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B.. (2000). Just Doing Business: Modern Racism and Obedience to Authority as Explanations for Employment Discrimination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1999.2867
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Milgram, S.. (2003). The Perils of Obedience. In The Phenomenon of Torture

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/h0040525
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Elms, A. C.. (2009). Obedience Lite. American Psychologist

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/a0014473
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Frimer, J. A., Gaucher, D., & Schaefer, N. K.. (2014). Political Conservatives’ Affinity for Obedience to Authority Is Loyal, Not Blind. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0146167214538672
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Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D.. (2012). Contesting the “Nature” Of Conformity: What Milgram and Zimbardo’s Studies Really Show. PLoS Biology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001426
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Bègue, L., Beauvois, J. L., Courbet, D., Oberlé, D., Lepage, J., & Duke, A. A.. (2015). Personality Predicts Obedience in a Milgram Paradigm. Journal of Personality

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12104
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Meyer, J., & Jesilow, P.. (1997). Obedience to authority: Possible effects on children’s testimony. Psychology, Crime & Law

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/10683169608409797
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Slater, M., Antley, A., Davison, A., Swapp, D., Guger, C., Barker, C., … Sanchez-Vives, M. V.. (2006). A virtual reprise of the Stanley Milgram obedience experiments. PLoS ONE

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000039
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Wiltermuth, S.. (2012). Synchrony and destructive obedience. Social Influence

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2012.658653
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Weber, M.. (2016). The types of legitimate domination. In Social Theory Re-Wired: New Connections to Classical and Contemporary Perspectives: Second Edition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9781315775357
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Dambrun, M., & Vatiné, E.. (2010). Reopening the study of extreme social behaviors: Obedience to authority within an immersive video environment. European Journal of Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.646
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Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Loreto Martínez, M.. (2007). Adolescents’ as active agents in the socialization process: Legitimacy of parental authority and obligation to obey as predictors of obedience. Journal of Adolescence

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.03.003
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Nicholson, I.. (2011). “Torture at Yale”: Experimental subjects, laboratory torment and the “rehabilitation” of Milgram—s “Obedience to Authority”. Theory & Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0959354311420199
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Ludeke, S., Johnson, W., & Bouchard, T. J.. (2013). “Obedience to traditional authority:” A heritable factor underlying authoritarianism, conservatism and religiousness. Personality and Individual Differences

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.018
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Nudging

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Nudge is a concept in behavioral science, political theory and behavioral economics which proposes positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions as ways to influence the behavior and decision making of groups or individuals. Nudging contrasts with other ways to achieve compliance, such as education, legislation or enforcement. The concept has influenced British and American politicians. Several nudge units exist around the world at the national level (UK, Germany, Japan and others) as well as at the international level (e.g. OECD, World Bank, UN).

See also “Cass Sunstein on Cognitive Infiltration”

Marteau, T. M., Ogilvie, D., Roland, M., Suhrcke, M., & Kelly, M. P.. (2011). Judging nudging: Can nudging improve population health?. BMJ

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/bmj.d228
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Sunstein, C. R.. (2014). Nudging: A Very Short Guide. Journal of Consumer Policy

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10603-014-9273-1
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Weinmann, M., Schneider, C., & Brocke, J. vom. (2016). Digital Nudging. Business and Information Systems Engineering

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s12599-016-0453-1
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Wilson, A. L., Buckley, E., Buckley, J. D., & Bogomolova, S.. (2016). Nudging healthier food and beverage choices through salience and priming. Evidence from a systematic review. Food Quality and Preference

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.02.009
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Cohen, S.. (2013). Nudging and Informed Consent. American Journal of Bioethics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2013.781704
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Wilkinson, T. M.. (2013). Nudging and manipulation. Political Studies

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00974.x
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Benartzi, S., Beshears, J., Milkman, K. L., Sunstein, C. R., Thaler, R. H., Shankar, M., … Galing, S.. (2017). Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?. Psychological Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0956797617702501
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Sunstein, C. R.. (2014). The Ethics of Nudging. SSRN

doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2526341

Hansen, P. G., & Jespersen, A. M.. (2013). Nudge and the Manipulation of Choice. European Journal of Risk Regulation

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/S1867299X00002762
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Ölander, F., & Thøgersen, J.. (2014). Informing Versus Nudging in Environmental Policy. Journal of Consumer Policy

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10603-014-9256-2
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Lehner, M., Mont, O., & Heiskanen, E.. (2016). Nudging – A promising tool for sustainable consumption behaviour?. Journal of Cleaner Production

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.086
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Marchiori, D. R., Adriaanse, M. A., & De Ridder, D. T. D.. (2017). Unresolved questions in nudging research: Putting the psychology back in nudging. Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12297
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Bowden, J. H., Otte, T. L., Nolte, C. G., & Otte, M. J.. (2012). Examining interior grid nudging techniques using two-way nesting in the WRF model for regional climate modeling. Journal of Climate

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00167.1
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Rayner, G., & Lang, T.. (2011). Is nudge an effective public health strategy to tackle obesity? No. BMJ

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136/bmj.d2177
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Acquisti, A.. (2009). Nudging Privacy. Citeseer

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1109/MSP.2009.163
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Mols, F., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Steffens, N. K.. (2015). Why a nudge is not enough: A social identity critique of governance by stealth. European Journal of Political Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/1475-6765.12073
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Liu, P., Tsimpidi, A. P., Hu, Y., Stone, B., Russell, A. G., & Nenes, A.. (2012). Differences between downscaling with spectral and grid nudging using WRF. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5194/acp-12-3601-2012
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von Storch, H., Langenberg, H., & Feser, F.. (2000). A Spectral Nudging Technique for Dynamical Downscaling Purposes. Monthly Weather Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<3664:ASNTFD>2.0.CO;2
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French, J.. (2011). Why nudging is not enough. Journal of Social Marketing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1108/20426761111141896
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Hanks, A. S., Just, D. R., Smith, L. E., & Wansink, B.. (2012). Healthy convenience: Nudging students toward healthier choices in the lunchroom. Journal of Public Health (United Kingdom)

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fds003
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Hansen, P. G., Skov, L. R., & Skov, K. L.. (2016). Making Healthy Choices Easier: Regulation versus Nudging. Annual Review of Public Health

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021537
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Heuristics & Biases

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In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions. They are mental shortcuts that usually involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others.
More at Wikipedia

Related References

Morvan, C., & Jenkins, B.. (2017). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9781912282562
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Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty – Heuristics and Biases. Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
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Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A.. (1996). On the reality of cognitive illusions.. Psychological Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.582
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Busenitz, L. W., & Barney, J. B.. (1997). Differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations: Biases and heuristics in strategic decision-making. Journal of Business Venturing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0883-9026(96)00003-1
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Benartzi, S., & Thaler, R. H.. (2007). Heuristics and Biases in Retirement Savings Behavior. Journal of Economic Perspectives

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1257/jep.21.3.81
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Bottom, W. P.. (2004). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment.. Academy of Management Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2004.14497675
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Gigerenzer, G.. (1991). How to make Cognitive Illusions Disappear: Beyond “Heuristics and Biases”. European Review of Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/14792779143000033
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Dale, S.. (2015). Heuristics and biases. Business Information Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9673(98)00665-7
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Kahneman, D.. (2016). Heuristics and biases. In Scientists Making a Difference: One Hundred Eminent Behavioral and Brain Scientists Talk about their Most Important Contributions

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316422250.038
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Horowitz, I.. (1984). Judgement under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (Book). Interfaces

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
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Park, C. W., & Lessig, V. P.. (1981). Familiarity and Its Impact on Consumer Decision Biases and Heuristics. Journal of Consumer Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1086/208859
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Gilovich, T., & Griffin, D. W.. (2004). Introduction – Heuristics and Biases: Then and Now. In Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2004.14497675
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Blumenthal-Barby, J. S., & Krieger, H.. (2015). Cognitive biases and heuristics in medical decision making: A critical review using a systematic search strategy. Medical Decision Making

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0272989X14547740
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Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F.. (2008). On the Relative Independence of Thinking Biases and Cognitive Ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.672
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Prentice, R.. (2004). Teaching ethics, heuristics and biases. Journal of Business Ethics Education

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5840/jbee2004117
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Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty : Heuristics and Biases Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article : Judgment under Uncertainty : Heuristics and Biases. Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
DOI URL
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Kahneman, D., & Klein, G.. (2009). Conditions for Intuitive Expertise: A Failure to Disagree. American Psychologist

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/a0016755
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Strough, J., Karns, T. E., & Schlosnagle, L.. (2011). Decision-making heuristics and biases across the life span. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06208.x
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Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E.. (2011). The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks. Memory and Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3758/s13421-011-0104-1
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West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E.. (2008). Heuristics and Biases as Measures of Critical Thinking: Associations with Cognitive Ability and Thinking Dispositions. Journal of Educational Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/a0012842
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Petersen, M. B.. (2015). Evolutionary political psychology: On the origin and structure of heuristics and biases in politics. Political Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/pops.12237
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Terror management theory

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In social psychology, terror management theory (abbr. TMT) proposes a basic psychological conflict that results from having a self-preservation instinct, whilst realizing that death is inevitable and to some extent unpredictable. Researchers in the field of “experimental existential psychology” (XXP) investigate the effects of, for example, mortality salience on various social, emotional, cognitive, and physiological processes. More at Wikipedia

Further References

Greenberg, J., & Arndt, J.. (2012). Terror management theory. In Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4135/9781446249215.n20
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Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & McGregor, H.. (1997). Terror Management Theory and Self-Esteem: Evidence That Increased Self-Esteem Reduces Mortality Salience Effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.24
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Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T.. (1997). Terror Management Theory of Self-Esteem and Cultural Worldviews: Empirical Assessments and Conceptual Refinements. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60016-7
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Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H.. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/1088868309352321
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Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Harmon-Jones, E., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., & Abend, T.. (1997). Terror management and cognitive-experiential self-theory: Evidence that terror management occurs in the experiential system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1132
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Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., Paladino, M. P., & Sacchi, S.. (2002). I belong, therefore, I exist: Ingroup identification, ingroup entitativity, and ingroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0146167202282001
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Vail, K. E., Rothschild, Z. K., Weise, D. R., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J.. (2010). A terror management analysis of the psychological functions of religion. Personality and Social Psychology Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/1088868309351165
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Cohen, F., & Solomon, S.. (2011). The politics of mortal terror. Current Directions in Psychological Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0963721411416570
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Martens, A., Goldenberg, J. L., & Greenberg, J.. (2005). A terror management perspective on ageism. Journal of Social Issues

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00403.x
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Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J.. (2015). Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory: From Genesis to Revelation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001
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Heine, S. J., Harihara, M., & Niiya, Y.. (2002). Terror management in Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/1467-839X.00103
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Jonas, E., Martens, A., Kayser, D. N., Fritsche, I., Sullivan, D., & Greenberg, J.. (2008). Focus Theory of Normative Conduct and Terror-Management Theory: The Interactive Impact of Mortality Salience and Norm Salience on Social Judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/a0013593
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Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Arndt, J., & Schimel, J.. (2004). Why do people need self-esteem? A theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/11759966_7
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Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T.. (1991). A Terror Management Theory of Social Behavior: The Psychological Functions of Self-Esteem and Cultural Worldviews. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60328-7
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Greenberg, J., & Kosloff, S.. (2008). Terror Management Theory: Implications for Understanding Prejudice, Stereotyping, Intergroup Conflict, and Political Attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00144.x
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Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S.. (1986). The Causes and Consequences of a Need for Self-Esteem: A Terror Management Theory. In Public Self and Private Self

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5_10
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Landau, M. J., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Cohen, F., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J., … Cook, A.. (2004). Deliver us from evil: The effects of mortality salience and reminders of 9/11 on support for President George W. Bush. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0146167204267988
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Jonas, E., & Fischer, P.. (2006). Terror management and religion: Evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.553
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Cozzolino, P. J., Staples, A. D., Meyers, L. S., & Samboceti, J.. (2004). Greed, Death, and Values: From Terror Management to Transcendence Management Theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/0146167203260716
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Florian, V., & Mikulincer, M.. (1997). Fear of death and the judgment of social transgressions: A multidimensional test of terror management theory.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037//0022-3514.73.2.369
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Arndt, J., Solomon, S., Kasser, T., & Sheldon, K. M.. (2004). The urge to splurge: A terror management account of materialism and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1207/s15327663jcp1403_2
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Dual-process theory

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Dual process theory in psychology suggests that thinking operates via two distinct systems: an implicit system, which is automatic and unconscious, and an explicit system, which is controlled and conscious. Explicit attitudes and behaviors can be modified relatively quickly through persuasion or education, whereas implicit attitudes usually take longer to change and often require the establishment of new habits. These theories are central to various branches of psychology, including social, personality, cognitive, and clinical psychology. They also intersect with economics, especially in the contexts of prospect theory and behavioral economics, and are gaining prominence in sociological studies through cultural analysis.

* * *

Dual-process models of cognition: A multifarious nomenclature (or a terminological pandemonium)

  • automatic vs. controlled (Kahneman, 2003)
  • associative vs. rule based (Sloman, 1996)
  • heuristic vs. analytic (Klaczynski, 2001)
  • personal vs. subpersonal (Frankish, 2009)
  • analogue vs. symbolic (Paivio, 1986)
  • reflexive vs. reflective (Lieberman et al., 2002)
  • heuristic vs. systematic (Chaiken, 1980)
  • peripheral vs. central (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981)
  • implicit vs. explicit (Greenwald et al., 1998)
  • automatic vs. conscious (Baumeister, 2005)
  • experiential vs. noetic (Strack & Deutsch, 2004)
  • intuitive vs. reflective (Sperber, 1997)
  • associative vs. propositional (Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006)
  • etc. pp.

It has been noted that “what matters is not the specific names but the fact of duality” (Baumeister, 2005, p.75).

Summary of the features attributed to each system

System 1 System 2
  • Evolutionarily old
  • Unconcious, preconcious
  • Shared with animals
  • Implicit knowledge
  • Automatic
  • Fast
  • Parallel
  • High capacity
  • Intuitive
  • Contextualized
  • Pragmatic
  • Associative
  • Independent of general intelligence
  • Evolutionarily recent
  • Concious
  • Uniquely (distinctively) human
  • Explicit knowledge
  • Controlled
  • Slow
  • Sequential
  • Low capacity
  • Reflective
  • Abstract
  • Logical
  • Rule-based
  • Linked to general intelligence

Adapted from Frankish, K. (2009). Systems and levels: Dual-system theorie and the personal-subpersonal distinction. In J. S. B. T. Evans & K. Frankish (Eds.), In two minds: Dual processes and beyond (p. 89-108). Oxford: Oxford University Press.


Further References

Groves, P. M., & Thompson, R. F.. (1970). Habituation: A dual-process theory. Psychological Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/h0029810
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Wixted, J. T.. (2007). Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychological Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.152
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Greene, J. D.. (2009). Dual-process morality and the personal/impersonal distinction: A reply to McGuire, Langdon, Coltheart, and Mackenzie. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.01.003
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Stanovich, K. E.. (2012). Distinguishing the reflective, algorithmic, and autonomous minds: Is it time for a tri-process theory?. In In Two Minds: Dual Processes and Beyond

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230167.003.0003
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Pelaccia, T., Tardif, J., Triby, E., & Charlin, B.. (2011). An analysis of clinical reasoning through a recent and comprehensive approach: The dual-process theory. Medical Education Online

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3402/meo.v16i0.5890
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Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T.. (1999). The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current status and controversies. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0022-4405(97)00003-4
DOI URL
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Barrouillet, P.. (2011). Dual-process theories and cognitive development: Advances and challenges. Developmental Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.002
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Greene, J. D., Morelli, S. A., Lowenberg, K., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D.. (2008). Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian moral judgment. Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.11.004
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Slade, P. D., & Glynn Owens, R.. (1998). A dual process model of perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behavior Modification

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/01454455980223010
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Sowden, P. T., Pringle, A., & Gabora, L.. (2015). The shifting sands of creative thinking: Connections to dual-process theory. Thinking and Reasoning

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2014.885464
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Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J.. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_01
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Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J.. (1999). A dual-process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory. Psychological Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.835
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Knowles, E. S., & Condon, C. A.. (1999). Why people say “yes”: A dual-process theory of acquiescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.379
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Gawronski, B.. (2013). What should we expect from a dual-process theory of preference construction in choice?. Journal of Consumer Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jcps.2013.04.007
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Sahlin, N. E., Wallin, A., & Persson, J.. (2009). Decision science: From Ramsey to dual process theories. Synthese

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s11229-009-9472-5
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De Neys, W.. (2017). Dual process theory 2.0. Dual Process Theory 2.0

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9781315204550
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Reyna, V. F.. (2004). How People Make Decisions That Involve Risk: A Dual-Processes Approach. Current Directions in Psychological Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00275.x
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Bago, B., & De Neys, W.. (2017). Fast logic?: Examining the time course assumption of dual process theory. Cognition

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.10.014
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Belief bias

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Elaboration likelihood model

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The elaboration likelihood model (acronymised as ELM) of persuasion is a dual process theory describing the change of attitudes. The ELM was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in 1986. The model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change. The ELM proposes two major routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.
File:Elm-diagram.jpg
Remark: An argumentum ab inconvenienti is one based on the difficulties involved in pursuing a line of reasoning, and is thus a form of appeal to consequences.


URL: www.psy.ohio-state.edu/petty/documents/1986ADVANCESsPettyCacioppo.pdf

References

Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T.. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2
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O’Keefe, D. J.. (2013). Elaboration Likelihood Model. In The International Encyclopedia of Communication

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/9781405186407.wbiece011.pub2
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Petty, R. E., & Bri??ol, P.. (2012). The elaboration likelihood model. In Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4135/9781446249215.n12
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Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T.. (1999). The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current status and controversies. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0022-4405(97)00003-4
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Kitchen, P. J., Kerr, G., Schultz, D. E., McColl, R., & Pals, H.. (2014). The elaboration likelihood model: Review, critique and research agenda. European Journal of Marketing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1108/EJM-12-2011-0776
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Tam, K. Y., & Ho, S. Y.. (2005). Web personalization as a persuasion strategy: An elaboration likelihood model perspective. Information Systems Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1287/isre.1050.0058
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Bhattacherjee, & Sanford. (2006). Influence Processes for Information Technology Acceptance: An Elaboration Likelihood Model. MIS Quarterly

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/25148755
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Sher, P. J., & Lee, S.-H.. (2009). Consumer skepticism and online reviews: An Elaboration Likelihood Model perspective. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2009.37.1.137
DOI URL
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Cho, C. H.. (1999). How advertising works on the WWW: Modified elaboration likelihood model. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/10641734.1999.10505087
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Allison, T. H., Davis, B. C., Webb, J. W., & Short, J. C.. (2017). Persuasion in crowdfunding: An elaboration likelihood model of crowdfunding performance. Journal of Business Venturing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2017.09.002
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Lien, N.-H.. (2001). Elaboration Likelihood Model in consumer research: A review. Proceedings of the National Science Council
Angst, & Agarwal. (2009). Adoption of Electronic Health Records in the Presence of Privacy Concerns: The Elaboration Likelihood Model and Individual Persuasion. MIS Quarterly

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/20650295
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Frewer, L. J., Howard, C., Hedderley, D., & Shepherd, R.. (1997). The elaboration likelihood model and communication about food risks. Risk Analysis

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1997.tb01281.x
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Yang, S. F.. (2015). An eye-tracking study of the Elaboration Likelihood Model in online shopping. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.elerap.2014.11.007
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Petty, R. E., Brinol, P., & Priester, J. R.. (2002). Mass media attitude change: Implications of the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. ‏. In Media effects: Advances in theory and research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/mt.2008.127
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Morris, J. D., Woo, C., & Singh, A. J.. (2005). Elaboration likelihood model: A missing intrinsic emotional implication. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.jt.5740171
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Bitner, M. J., & Obermiller, C.. (1985). THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL: LIMITATIONS AND EXTENSIONS IN MARKETING. Advances in Consumer Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
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Douglas, S. C., Kiewitz, C., Martinko, M. I., Harvey, P., Younhee, K. I. M., & Jae, U. C.. (2008). Cognitions, emotions, and evaluations: An elaboration likelihood model for workplace aggression. Academy of Management Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2008.31193490
DOI URL
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Zhou, T.. (2017). Understanding location-based services users’ privacy concern: An elaboration likelihood model perspective. Internet Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1108/IntR-04-2016-0088
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Fan, Y., & Miao, Y.. (2012). Effect of Electronic Word-of-Mouth on Consumer Purchase Intention : The Perspective of Gender Differences. International Journal of Electronic Business Management
Roberson, Q. M., Collins, C. J., & Oreg, S.. (2005). The effects of recruitment message specificity on applicant attraction to organizations. Journal of Business and Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10869-004-2231-1
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Gregory, C. K., Meade, A. W., & Thompson, L. F.. (2013). Understanding internet recruitment via signaling theory and the elaboration likelihood model. Computers in Human Behavior

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.013
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White, P. H., & Harkins, S. G.. (1994). Race of Source Effects in the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.67.5.790
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Fallis, A. .. (2013). THE ROLE OF ARGUMENT QUALITY IN THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
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Zhou, T.. (2012). Understanding users’ initial trust in mobile banking: An elaboration likelihood perspective. Computers in Human Behavior

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.03.021
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Walter Lippmann

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Walter Lippmann
Walter Lippmann was an American writer, reporter, and political commentator famous for being among the first to introduce the concept of Cold War, coining the term “stereotype” in the modern psychological meaning, and critiquing media and democracy in his newspaper column and several books, most notably his 1922 book Public Opinion.More at Wikipedia

“That the manufacture of consent is capable of great refinements no one, I think, denies. The process by which public opinions arise is certainly no less intricate than it has appeared in these pages, and the opportunities for manipulation open to anyone who understands the process are plain enough. . . . [a]s a result of psychological research, coupled with the modern means of communication, the practice of democracy has turned a corner. A revolution is taking place, infinitely more significant than any shifting of economic power…. Under the impact of propaganda, not necessarily in the sinister meaning of the word alone, the old constants of our thinking have become variables. It is no longer possible, for example, to believe in the original dogma of democracy; that the knowledge needed for the management of human affairs comes up spontaneously from the human heart. Where we act on that theory we expose ourselves to self-deception, and to forms of persuasion that we cannot verify. It has been demonstrated that we cannot rely upon intuition, conscience, or the accidents of casual opinion if we are to deal with the world beyond our reach. …  The public must be put in its place, so that each of us may live free of the trampling and roar of a bewildered herd.” (Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, Chapter XV)

  • Lippmann, W. (1920). Liberty and the News. Museum.
  • Lippmann, W. (1970). The Phantom Public. Politics.
Lippmann, W.. (1970). The Phantom Public. Politics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/00150190600716804
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Schudson, M.. (2008). The “Lippmann-Dewey Debate” and the Invention of Walter Lippmann as an Anti-Democrat 1986–1996. International Journal of Communication

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1159/000111495
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Obar, J. A.. (2013). Big Data and The Phantom Public: Walter Lippmann and the Fallacy of Data Privacy Self-Management. SSRN

doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2239188

Bybee, C.. (1999). Can Democracy Survive in the Post-Factual Age?: A Return to the Lippmann-Dewey Debate about the Politics of News. Journalism and Communication Monographs

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/152263799900100103
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Lippmann, W.. (1987). The Cold War. Foreign Affairs

Plain numerical DOI:
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Lippmann, W.. (1955). Essays in the Public Philosophy. Mentor books

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
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Lippmann, W.. (1920). Liberty and the News. Museum

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
DOI URL
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Newman, L. S.. (2009). WAS WALTER LIPPMANN INTERESTED IN STEREOTYPING?: Public Opinion and Cognitive Social Psychology. History of Psychology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/a0015230
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Edwards Bernays

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Show German translation of the book

Further References

Bernays, E.. (1961). Crystallizing public opinion. Liveright Publishing Corporation

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0168-583X(03)01015-2
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Bernays, E. L.. (1947). The Engineering of Consent. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/000271624725000116
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Jansen, S. C.. (2013). Semantic Tyranny: How Edward L. Bernays Stole Walter Lippmann’s Mojo and Got Away With It and Why It Still Matters. International Journal of Communication

Plain numerical DOI: 20130005
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Hogan, J. M., & Cutlip, S. M.. (1996). The Unseen Power: Public Relations; A History.. The American Historical Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/2170587
DOI URL
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L’Etang, J.. (1999). The father of spin: Edward L. Bernays and the birth of public relations. Public Relations Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0363-8111(99)80133-7
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Bernays, E. L.. (1928). Manipulating Public Opinion: The Why and The How. American Journal of Sociology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1086/214599
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Bernays, E. L.. (1935). Molding Public Opinion. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/3391210
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García, C.. (2015). Searching for Benedict de Spinoza in the history of communication: His influence on Walter Lippmann and Edward Bernays. Public Relations Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.01.003
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Bernays, E. L.. (1942). The Marketing of National Policies: A Study of War Propaganda. Journal of Marketing

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/1245869
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Bernays, E. L.. (1971). Emergence of the Public Relations Counsel: Principles and Recollections. Business History Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.2307/3113663
DOI URL
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Alarcón Coka, D.. (2012). Edward Bernays, psicología de Sigmund Freud aplicada a la mente del consumidor. Biblioteca Repositrio Universal
Fröhlich, R.. (2015). Zur Problematik der PR-Definition(en). In Handbuch der Public Relations

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-531-18917-8_8
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Bernays, E. L.. (1975). Social responsibility of business. Public Relations Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0363-8111(75)80002-6
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Justman, S.. (1994). Freud and His Nephew. Social Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5465/AMBPP.2018.17743symposium
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Murphree, V.. (2015). Edward Bernays’s 1929 “Torches of Freedom” march: Myths and historical significance. American Journalism

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/08821127.2015.1064681
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García, C., Roosevelt, T., Wilson, W., & Kennedy, J. F.. (2010). Rethinking Walter Lippmann ’ s legacy in the history of public relations. PRism
Rodgers, R. R.. (2010). The press and public relations through the lens of the periodicals, 1890-1930. Public Relations Review

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2009.10.012
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Manufacturing consent

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Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media is a book written by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, in which the authors propose that the mass communication media of the U.S. “are effective and powerful ideological institutions that carry out a system-supportive propaganda function, by reliance on market forces, internalized assumptions, and self-censorship, and without overt coercion”, by means of the propaganda model of communication.[1] The title derives from the phrase “the manufacture of consent,” employed in the book Public Opinion (1922), by Walter Lippmann (1889–1974).[2]

The book was first published in 1988 and was revised 20 years later to take account of developments such as the fall of the Soviet Union. There has been debate about how the internet has changed the public´s access to information since 1988.