The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.More at Wikipedia
Further References
Gridley, M., & Jenkins, W. J.. (2017). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View
“Guided by the belief that we cannot make broad extrapolations from the obedience studies without first firmly establishing what has and has not been found using the paradigm itself, this article draws on 35 years of accumulated research and writings on the obedi-ence paradigm to present a status report on the following salient questions and issues sur-rounding obedience to authority: (a) how should we construe the nature of authority in the obedience experiment? (b) do predictions of those unfamiliar with the obedience experi-ment underestimate the actual obedience rates? (c) are there gender differences in obedi-ence? and (d) have obedience rates changed over time?”
Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A.. (1992). A relational model of authority in groups. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
“Stanley milgram’s obedience to authority experiments remain one of the most inspired contributions in the field of social psychology. although milgram undertook more than 20 experimental variations, his most (in)famous result was the first official trial run – the remote condition and its 65% completion rate. drawing on many unpublished documents from milgram’s personal archive at yale university, this article traces the historical origins and early evolution of the obedience experiments. part 1 presents the previous experiences that led to milgram’s conception of his rudimentary research idea and then details the role of his intuition in its refinement. part 2 traces the conversion of milgram’s evolving idea into a reality, paying particular attention to his application of the exploratory method of discovery during several pilot studies. both parts illuminate milgram’s ad hoc introduction of various manipulative techniques and subtle tension-resolving refinements. the procedural adjustments continued until milgram was confident that the first official experiment would produce a high completion rate, a result contrary to expectations of people’s behaviour. showing how milgram conceived of, then arrived at, this first official result is important because the insights gained may help others to determine theoretically why so many participants completed this experiment. beyond the fabric there is not only the loom and the weaver but also the weaving. beyond the social pattern there is the play of forces emanating from the endless interaction of group and environment. by studying the fabric alone we could never understand the process of weaving, and we will never come to grips with the problem of social causation by studying its contemporary resultant patterns. – robert maciver (1933, p. 145, as cited in van krieken, 1998, p. 27).”
Milgram, S.. (1974). Obedience to authority : an experimental view. American Psychologist
“Milgram s. obedience to authority – an experimental view. london: tavistock, 1974. the experiments described in this book were carried out while milgram was in the dept of psychology at yale university 1960-63. an act carried out under command is, psychologically, of a profoundly different character than action that is spontaneous. obedience is the psychological mechanism that links individual action to political purpose. milgram’s focus on obedience and authority starts by the nazi extermination of european jews – the most extreme instance of abhorrent immoral acts carried out by thousands of people in the name of obedience. yet, in lesser degree this type of thing is constantly recurring: ordinary citizens are ordered to destroy other people, and they do so because they consider it their duty to obey orders. in order to take a close look at the act of obeying, milgram set up a simple experiment where a person comes to the laboratory and is told to carry out a series of acts that come increasingly into conflict with conscience. the main question is how far the participant will comply with the experimenter’s instructions before refusing to carry out the ctions required of him. two people particppate – one as a ‘teacher’ and the other as a ‘learner’. the experimenter explains that the study is concerned with the effects of punishment on learning. the learner is seated in a chair with his arms strapped and an electrode attached to his wrist. he is told that he is to learn a list of word pairs; whenever he makes an error, he will receive electric shocks of increasing intensity. the real focus of the experiment is the teacher, who is seated before an impressive shock generator, designated from ‘sligh shock’ to ‘danger – severe shock’. when the learner gives and incorrect answer, the teacher is to give him an electric shock. (the learner, or victim, is an actor who actually receives no shock at all. the point of the experiment is to see how far a person will proceed in a concrete and measurable sitation in which he is ordered to inflict increasing pain on a protesting victim. at what point will the subject refuse to obey the experimenter? many subjects will obey the experimenter no matter how painful the shocks seem to be. this was seen time and again in these studies. it is the extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority that constitutes the chief finding of the study. a commonly offered explanation is that…”
Passini, S., & Morselli, D.. (2009). Authority relationships between obedience and disobedience. New Ideas in Psychology
Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., Cohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B.. (2000). Just Doing Business: Modern Racism and Obedience to Authority as Explanations for Employment Discrimination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
“‘The perils of obedience’ as it appeared in harper’ s magazine. abridged and adapted from obedience to authority by stanley milgram. copyright 1974 by stanley milgram.”
Elms, A. C.. (2009). Obedience Lite. American Psychologist
“Jerry m. burger’s partial replication of stanley milgram’s (1963, 1965, 1974) classic experiments on obedience to authority is considered from the viewpoint of a contributor and witness to the original obedience experiments. although burger’s replication succeeded in terms of gaining the approval of his local institutional review board, it did so by removing a large portion of the stressful circumstances that made milgram’s findings so psychologically interesting and so broadly applicable to instances of real-world destructive obedience. however, burger has provided an initial demonstration that his ‘obedience lite’ procedures can be used to extend the study of certain situational and personality variables beyond those examined by milgram.”
Frimer, J. A., Gaucher, D., & Schaefer, N. K.. (2014). Political Conservatives’ Affinity for Obedience to Authority Is Loyal, Not Blind. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
“Liberals and conservatives disagree about obeying authorities, with conservatives holding the more positive views. we suggest that reactions to conservative authorities, rather than to obedience itself, are responsible for the division. past findings that conservatives favor obedience uniformly confounded obedience with conservative authorities. we break down obedience to authority into its constituent parts to test the divisiveness of each part. the concepts of obedience (study 1) and authority (study 2) recruited inferences of conservative authorities, conflating results of simple, seemingly face valid tests of their divisiveness. these results establish necessary features of a valid test, to which study 3 conforms. conservatives have the more positive moral views of obedience only when the authorities are conservative (e.g., commanding officers); liberals do when the authorities are liberal (e.g., environmentalists). the two camps agree about obeying ideologically neutral authorities (e.g., office managers). obedience itself is not ideologically divisive.”
Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D.. (2012). Contesting the “Nature” Of Conformity: What Milgram and Zimbardo’s Studies Really Show. PLoS Biology
“Understanding of the psychology of tyranny is dominated by classic studies from the 1960s and 1970s: milgram’s research on obedience to authority and zimbardo’s stanford prison experiment. supporting popular notions of the banality of evil, this research has been taken to show that people conform passively and unthinkingly to both the instructions and the roles that authorities provide, however malevolent these may be. recently, though, this consensus has been challenged by empirical work informed by social identity theorizing. this suggests that individuals’ willingness to follow authorities is conditional on identification with the authority in question and an associated belief that the authority is right.”
Bègue, L., Beauvois, J. L., Courbet, D., Oberlé, D., Lepage, J., & Duke, A. A.. (2015). Personality Predicts Obedience in a Milgram Paradigm. Journal of Personality
“This study investigates how obedience in a milgram-like experiment is predicted by interindividual differences. participants were 35 males and 31 females aged 26–54 from the general population who were contacted by phone 8 months after their participation in a study transposing milgram’s obedience paradigm to the context of a fake television game show. interviews were presented as opinion polls with no stated ties to the earlier experiment. personality was assessed by the big five mini-markers questionnaire (saucier, 1994). political orientation and social activism were also measured. results confirmed hypotheses that conscientiousness and agreeableness would be associated with willingness to administer higher-intensity electric shocks to a victim. political orientation and social activism were also related to obedience. our results provide empirical evidence suggesting that individual differences in personality and political variables matter in the explanation of obedience to authority.”
Meyer, J., & Jesilow, P.. (1997). Obedience to authority: Possible effects on children’s testimony. Psychology, Crime & Law
“This article reviews research done on children’s testimony and suggests that obedience to authority may be one factor that future studies should address. the manner in which suggestibility and authority may influence youngsters’ accounts is discussed. suggestions for improving the accuracy of children’s testimony are presented.”
Slater, M., Antley, A., Davison, A., Swapp, D., Guger, C., Barker, C., … Sanchez-Vives, M. V.. (2006). A virtual reprise of the Stanley Milgram obedience experiments. PLoS ONE
“BACKGROUND: stanley milgram’s 1960s experimental findings that people would administer apparently lethal electric shocks to a stranger at the behest of an authority figure remain critical for understanding obedience. yet, due to the ethical controversy that his experiments ignited, it is nowadays impossible to carry out direct experimental studies in this area. in the study reported in this paper, we have used a similar paradigm to the one used by milgram within an immersive virtual environment. our objective has not been the study of obedience in itself, but of the extent to which participants would respond to such an extreme social situation as if it were real in spite of their knowledge that no real events were taking place.nnmethodology: following the style of the original experiments, the participants were invited to administer a series of word association memory tests to the (female) virtual human representing the stranger. when she gave an incorrect answer, the participants were instructed to administer an ‘electric shock’ to her, increasing the voltage each time. she responded with increasing discomfort and protests, eventually demanding termination of the experiment. of the 34 participants, 23 saw and heard the virtual human, and 11 communicated with her only through a text interface.nnconclusions: our results show that in spite of the fact that all participants knew for sure that neither the stranger nor the shocks were real, the participants who saw and heard her tended to respond to the situation at the subjective, behavioural and physiological levels as if it were real. this result reopens the door to direct empirical studies of obedience and related extreme social situations, an area of research that is otherwise not open to experimental study for ethical reasons, through the employment of virtual environments.”
Wiltermuth, S.. (2012). Synchrony and destructive obedience. Social Influence
“Studies demonstrated that cultural practices involving synchrony can make people more likely to engage in destructive obedience at the behest of authority figures. participants instructed to follow a leader while walking in-step with him felt closer to him and were more willing to kill sow bugs at the leader’s request in an ostensibly different experiment than were participants in other conditions. the findings are the first to indicate that synchronous activities may be used to influence leader–follower relations.”
Weber, M.. (2016). The types of legitimate domination. In Social Theory Re-Wired: New Connections to Classical and Contemporary Perspectives: Second Edition
“Three types of authority: 1)rational grounds/legal authority- a) any given legal norm may be established by agreement; b) every body of law consists in a consistent system of abstract rules; c) the superior is subject to an impersonal order; d) the person who obeys authority does it as a member and only obeys the ‘law’; e) the members of the organization do not owe obedience to the superior himself, but to the order (p.217-26)n2) traditional grounds- traditional if legitimacy is claimed for it and believed in by virtue of the sanctity of age-old rules and powers based on personal loyalty (p.226-41)n3) charismatic grounds- applied to a certain quality of individual by virtue of which he is considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with supernatural/superhuman/exceptional powers & qualities (p.242-54nfeudalism – …n”
Dambrun, M., & Vatiné, E.. (2010). Reopening the study of extreme social behaviors: Obedience to authority within an immersive video environment. European Journal of Social Psychology
“In this study, we used a paradigm similar to the one used by milgram in his classic obedience study, using an immersive video environment. we manipulated the victim’s degree of visibility and his ethnicity. when the victim was hidden, the level of obedience we obtained was similar to milgram’s. replicating previous findings observed in real environments, participants were more obedient when the victim was hidden than when he was visible, and the more obedient participants negated their own responsibility by projecting responsibility on both the victim and the experimenter. state-anger and right-wing authoritarianism (rwa) emerged as two significant predictors of the level of obedience. illustrating an underlying process of racial-dehumanization, participants reported less anxiety and distress when the victim was a north african than when the victim was of the same racial origin as the participant. these results underscore the usefulness of using immersive environments when studying ex”
Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Loreto Martínez, M.. (2007). Adolescents’ as active agents in the socialization process: Legitimacy of parental authority and obligation to obey as predictors of obedience. Journal of Adolescence
Nicholson, I.. (2011). “Torture at Yale”: Experimental subjects, laboratory torment and the “rehabilitation” of Milgram—s “Obedience to Authority”. Theory & Psychology
“Stanley milgram’s experiments on ‘obedience to authority’ are among the most criticized in all of psychology. however, over the past 20 years, there has been a gradual rehabilitation of milgram’s work and reputation, a reconsideration that is in turn closely linked to a contemporary ‘revival’ of his obedience experiments. this paper provides a critical counterpoint to this ‘milgram revival’ by drawing on archival material from participants in the obedience study and milgram himself. this material indicates that milgram misrepresented (a) the extent of his debriefing procedures, (b) the risk posed by the experiment, and (c) the harm done to his participants. the archival record also indicates that milgram had doubts about the scientific value of the experiment, thereby compromising his principal ethical justification for employing such extreme methods. the article ends with a consideration of the implications of these historical revelations for contemporary efforts to revive the milgram paradigm.”
Ludeke, S., Johnson, W., & Bouchard, T. J.. (2013). “Obedience to traditional authority:” A heritable factor underlying authoritarianism, conservatism and religiousness. Personality and Individual Differences
“Nudging has captured the imagination of the public, researchers, and policy makers as a way of changing behaviour, with the uk and us governments embracing it. theresa marteau and colleagues ask whether it stands up to scientific scrutiny”
Sunstein, C. R.. (2014). Nudging: A Very Short Guide. Journal of Consumer Policy
“This brief essay offers a general introduction to the idea of nudging, along with a list of ten of the most important ‘nudges.’ it also provides a short discussion of the question whether to create some kind of separate ‘behavioral insights unit,’ capable of conducting its own research, or instead to rely on existing institutions.”
Weinmann, M., Schneider, C., & Brocke, J. vom. (2016). Digital Nudging. Business and Information Systems Engineering
“People’s decisions are influenced by the decision environment. in fact, no choice is made in a vacuum, as there is no neutral way to present choices. presenting choices in certain ways — even if this happens unintendedly — can thus ‘nudge’ people and change their behavior in predictable ways. ‘nudging’ is a concept from behavioral economics that describes how relatively minor changes to decision environments (e.g., setting defaults) influence decision outcomes — which often remain unnoticed by the decision maker. we extend the nudging concept to the digital environment. we define ‘digital nudging’ as the use of user-interface design elements to guide people’s behavior in digital choice environments. we propose a digital-nudging process and identify opportunities for future research.”
Wilson, A. L., Buckley, E., Buckley, J. D., & Bogomolova, S.. (2016). Nudging healthier food and beverage choices through salience and priming. Evidence from a systematic review. Food Quality and Preference
“High rates of overweight, obesity and chronic disease are partly attributable to an increased prevalence of poor dietary choices, which are in part due to the modern environment being conducive to the development of habitual unhealthy food and beverage choices. nudging aims to influence habitual behaviors by altering the presentation of options to consumers. this systematic literature review investigated nudging interventions, as attributed by the original authors, and their effectiveness for influencing healthier choices. eight bibliographic databases from the disciplines of psychology, business and health were searched. included studies were available in the english language and as full-text peer reviewed publication. studies used nudging or choice architecture interventions that influenced adult food and beverage choices. the number of papers reporting nudging interventions (as attributed by the authors) was low, with only thirteen articles included in the review (comprising 26 primary studies). all studies fall into ‘salience’ and ‘priming’ – type nudging interventions, which were tested across different adult populations and settings – including laboratories, canteens, cafeterias and restaurants. according to the nhmrc levels of evidence (nhmrc, 2007) only two interventions were of a high level of evidence, and the majority of articles received average or poor quality ratings, as per the scottish intercollegiate guidelines. combined ‘salience’ and ‘priming’ nudges showed consistent positive influence on healthier food and beverage choices. this review had limited ability to determine effectiveness of nudging due to various populations and settings tested and the use and reporting of incomparable outcome measures. this is the first review to synthesize nudging interventions, finding minimal uptake of nudging in the academic literature, and mixed effectiveness of nudging for influencing healthier food and beverage choices. this review is registered with prospero – crd42013005056.”
Cohen, S.. (2013). Nudging and Informed Consent. American Journal of Bioethics
“Libertarian paternalism’s notion of ‘nudging’ refers to steering individual decision making so as to make choosers better off without breaching their free choice. if successful, this may offer an ideal synthesis between the duty to respect patient autonomy and that of beneficence, which at times favors paternalistic influence. a growing body of literature attempts to assess the merits of nudging in health care. however, this literature deals almost exclusively with health policy, while the question of the potential benefit of nudging for the practice of informed consent has escaped systematic analysis. this article focuses on this question. while it concedes that nudging could amount to improper exploitation of cognitive weaknesses, it defends the practice of nudging in a wide range of other conditions. the conclusion is that, when ethically legitimate, nudging offers an important new paradigm for informed consent, with a special potential to overcome the classical dilemma between paternalistic beneficence and respect for autonomy.”
Wilkinson, T. M.. (2013). Nudging and manipulation. Political Studies
“Behavioural economics and social psychology have shown that humans have all sorts of psychological quirks. policy makers have become enthusiastic about taking advantage of these quirks through what thaler and sunstein call ‘nudges’. this article asks: when would nudging be manipulative? the article has six parts: (1) publicity and transparency, which claims that thaler and sunstein’s own attempt to deal with evil nudges is inadequate; (2) manipulation and autonomy, where the nature and wrongness of manipulation is connected to a conception of autonomy; (3) the perversion of the decision-making process – a piecemeal approach, which sorts nudges into easy and hard cases and assesses attempts to pick out certain methods, such as temptation, as manipulative; (4) the perversion of the decision-making process – general accounts, which shows why we do not have a clear, complete and correct account of what such perversion is; (5) intentions and nudging’s escape clause, where it is shown that governments that nudge as thaler and sunstein would wish do not manipulate because they do not have the intention to manipulate; and (6) consensual manipulation, where it is claimed that manipulation can, with the right consent, be consistent with autonomy.”
Benartzi, S., Beshears, J., Milkman, K. L., Sunstein, C. R., Thaler, R. H., Shankar, M., … Galing, S.. (2017). Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?. Psychological Science
“Governments are increasingly adopting behavioral science techniques for changing individual behavior in pursuit of policy objectives. the types of ‘nudge’ interventions that governments are now adopting alter people’s decisions without resorting to coercion or significant changes to economic incentives. we calculate ratios of impact to cost for nudge interventions and for traditional policy tools, such as tax incentives and other financial inducements, and we find that nudge interventions often compare favorably to traditional interventions. we conclude that nudging is a valuable approach that should be used more in conjunction with traditional policies, but more relative effectiveness calculations are needed.”
Sunstein, C. R.. (2014). The Ethics of Nudging. SSRN
“This essay defends the following propositions. (1) it is pointless to object to choice architecture or nudging as such. choice architecture cannot be avoided. nature itself nudges; so does the weather; so do spontaneous orders and invisible hands. the private sector inevitably nudges, as does the government. it is reasonable to object to particular nudges, but not to nudging in general. (2) in this context, ethical abstractions (for example, about autonomy, dignity, and manipulation) can create serious confusion. to make progress, those abstractions must be brought into contact with concrete practices. nudging and choice architecture take diverse forms, and the force of an ethical objection depends on the specific form. (3) if welfare is our guide, much nudging is actually required on ethical grounds. (4) if autonomy is our guide, much nudging is also required on ethical grounds. (5) choice architecture should not, and need not, compromise either dignity or self-government, though imaginable forms could do both. (6) some nudges are objectionable because the choice architect has illicit ends. when the ends are legitimate, and when nudges are fully transparent and subject to public scrutiny, a convincing ethical objection is less likely to be available. (7) there is, however, room for ethical objections in the case of well-motivated but manipulative interventions, certainly if people have not consented to them; such nudges can undermine autonomy and dignity. it follows that both the concept and the practice of manipulation deserve careful attention. the concept of manipulation has a core and a periphery; some interventions fit within the core, others within the periphery, and others outside of both. ”
Hansen, P. G., & Jespersen, A. M.. (2013). Nudge and the Manipulation of Choice. European Journal of Risk Regulation
In nudge (2008) richard thaler and cass sunstein suggested that public policy–makers arrange decision–making contexts in ways to promote behaviour change in the interest of individual citizens as well as that of society. however, in the public sphere and academia alike widespread discussions have appeared concerning the public acceptability of nudgebased behavioural policy. thaler and sunstein’s own position is that the anti–nudge position is a literal non–starter, because citizens are always influenced by the decision making context anyway, and nudging is liberty preserving and acceptable if guided by libertarian paternalism and rawls’ publicity principle. a persistent and central tenet in the criticism disputing the acceptability of the approach is that nudging works by manipulating citizens’ choices. in this paper, we argue that both lines of argumentation are seriously flawed. we show how the anti–nudge position is not a literal non–starter due to the responsibilities that accrue on policy–makers by the intentional intervention in citizens’ life, how nudging is not essentially liberty preserving and why the approach is not necessarily acceptable even if satisfying rawls’ publicity principle. we then use the psychological dual process theory underlying the approach as well as an epistemic transparency criterion identified by thaler and sunstein themselves to show that nudging is not necessarily about ‘manipulation’, nor necessarily about influencing ‘choice’. the result is a framework identifying four types of nudges that may be used to provide a central component for more nuanced normative considerations as well as a basis for policy recommendations.
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Ölander, F., & Thøgersen, J.. (2014). Informing Versus Nudging in Environmental Policy. Journal of Consumer Policy
“Information has not been proven a very successful means to promote voluntary behaviour change to protect the environment. on this backcloth, there is currently increasing interest in recommendations from behavioural economics focusing on making the choice architecture more facilitating for the desired behaviour. the authors present three studies demonstrating how mental shortcuts, based on subtle cues in the context, unconsciously influence human decision-making, with important consequences for the environment. two of our own studies illustrate the behavioural impacts of (a) anchoring (the design of the european energy label) and (b) default effect (the framing of a request to participate in the smart grid), and data from göckeritz et al. (eur j soc psych 40:514-523, 2010) are used to illustrate the impacts of (c) herding or descriptive norms (the social context of energy saving). the authors end by pointing at theoretical weaknesses in behavioural economics and calling for research to strengthening the theoretical underpinnings of this approach to behaviour change.”
Lehner, M., Mont, O., & Heiskanen, E.. (2016). Nudging – A promising tool for sustainable consumption behaviour?. Journal of Cleaner Production
“Success of strategies for solving problems of climate change, resource efficiency and environmental impacts increasingly depend on whether changes in public behaviour can and will supplement the technical solutions available to date. a renewed perspective on existing policy tools and potential strategies for behaviour change are entering public debate that have implications for behaviour of individuals, but that also raise critical questions about the role of the government in the society and transition to sustainability. the guiding question is whether it is possible to help individuals make better decisions for themselves and society at large by overcoming limitations of human cognitive capacity and behavioural biases? in order to answer these questions, this article 1) analyses existing academic knowledge on nudging and choice architecture; 2) investigates lessons about effectiveness of applied nudging tools and approaches in consumption domains of energy use in the home, food and mobility; 3) discusses opportunities and limitations for devising more successful nudges in the three consumption domains; and 4) outlines critical issues concerning the legitimacy of nudging. the article shows that lately applications of behavioural sciences and behavioural economics, such as nudge, have been helping policy makers in different countries and sectors to more systematically integrate behavioural insights into policy design and implementation. however, the size of the effects of policy interventions and the actual outcomes of interventions in different contexts are very diverse. results from one experiment cannot be indiscriminately generalised to a different context or to a wider population. the problem is the complexity of human behaviour and the diversity of factors that influence it. despite that, nudging is a useful strategy for inducing changes in context-specific behaviour. nudge tools are seen as a complement to the traditional policy instruments rather than as a substitute for laws and regulations and economic tools. the article is based on the project funded by the swedish epa (environmental protection agency) that resulted in a report ‘nudging. advancing swedish policy making with academic insights and practical experiences of changing behaviour’ (mont et al., 2014), which served as an input to the swedish epa’ recommendations to the swedish government on policy measures for sustainable consumption (naturvårdsverket, 2014).”
Marchiori, D. R., Adriaanse, M. A., & De Ridder, D. T. D.. (2017). Unresolved questions in nudging research: Putting the psychology back in nudging. Social and Personality Psychology Compass
“Nudging interventions are broadly defined as a rearrangement of a choice context that gently suggests a specific choice. their increasing popularity has attracted attention and discussion from researchers, policy makers, and practitioners alike. after some applications to domains such as health, environmental issues, and retirement savings, the next step in nudging is to understand the psychological boundary conditions when applied to varied domains of daily life. it is yet unclear for example to what extent nudging interventions can be transparent without losing effectiveness, or how permanent the effects are. these unresolved questions may have contributed to heated political and scientific discussions, on for example the ethics of using nudges in the public health domain, due to the missing scientific evidence. indeed, this popularity may have led to forget how nudging harnesses insights from decades of research in psychology to change people’s behavior. the aim of this paper is to shift the focus back to the psychological premises nudges were built upon. it summarizes several outstanding questions that future research in the psychology of nudging should address. advancing research in nudging will help to improve our understanding of applied nudging interventions and provide clarity to debates such as ethical appropriateness, effectiveness, and public approval.”
Bowden, J. H., Otte, T. L., Nolte, C. G., & Otte, M. J.. (2012). Examining interior grid nudging techniques using two-way nesting in the WRF model for regional climate modeling. Journal of Climate
“AbstractThis study evaluates interior nudging techniques using the weather research and forecasting (wrf) model for regional climate modeling over the conterminous united states (conus) using a two-way nested configuration. ncep–department of energy atmospheric model intercomparison project (amip-ii) reanalysis (r-2) data are downscaled to 36 km × 36 km by nudging only at the lateral boundaries, using gridpoint (i.e., analysis) nudging and using spectral nudging. seven annual simulations are conducted and evaluated for 1988 by comparing 2-m temperature, precipitation, 500-hpa geopotential height, and 850-hpa meridional wind to the 32-km north american regional reanalysis (narr). using interior nudging reduces the mean biases for those fields throughout the conus compared to the simulation without interior nudging. the predictions of 2-m temperature and fields aloft behave similarly when either analysis or spectral nudging is used. for precipitation, however, analysis nudging generates monthly precipitatio…”
Rayner, G., & Lang, T.. (2011). Is nudge an effective public health strategy to tackle obesity? No. BMJ
“The article presents the views of several health experts on the effectiveness of the british government’s approach of nudging in combating obesity. according to adam oliver, nudge policies of the government may enable the people to make healthier choices. he believes that there is no restriction for the people under the nudging approach and can freely involve in the behaviour change mechanism. geof rayner and tim lang criticizes the nudging approach of the government. as per them, this strategy of public health is more than a publicly endorsed marketing strategy. they also reflect on the book ‘nudge,’ by richard thaler and cass sunstein, with special reference to the nudging approach of great britain’s government.”
“Privacy decisions often involve balancing competing interests. as such, they’re a natural field of study for economics. but traditional economic models have made overly restrictive assumptions about the stability and nature of individual privacy preferences. approaches drawing on existing research in behavioral economics and psychology can offer complementary tools for understanding privacy decision making. er -”
Mols, F., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Steffens, N. K.. (2015). Why a nudge is not enough: A social identity critique of governance by stealth. European Journal of Political Research
“Policy makers can use four different modes of governance: ‘hierarchy’, ‘markets’, ‘networks’ and ‘persuasion’. in this article, it is argued that ‘nudging’ represents a distinct (fifth) mode of governance. the effectiveness of nudging as a means of bringing about lasting behaviour change is questioned and it is argued that evidence for its success ignores the facts that many successful nudges are not in fact nudges; that there are instances when nudges backfire; and that there may be ethical concerns associated with nudges. instead, and in contrast to nudging, behaviour change is more likely to be enduring where it involves social identity change and norm internalisation. the article concludes by urging public policy scholars to engage with the social identity literature on ‘social influence’, and the idea that those promoting lasting behaviour change need to engage with people not as individual cognitive misers, but as members of groups whose norms they internalise and enact.”
Liu, P., Tsimpidi, A. P., Hu, Y., Stone, B., Russell, A. G., & Nenes, A.. (2012). Differences between downscaling with spectral and grid nudging using WRF. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
“Dynamical downscaling has been extensively used to study regional climate forced by large-scale global climate models. during the downscaling process, however, the simulation of regional climate models (rcms) tends to drift away from the driving fields. developing a solution that addresses this issue, by retaining the large scale features (from the large-scale fields) and the small-scale features (from the rcms) has led to the development of ‘nudging’ techniques. here, we examine the performance of two nudging techniques, grid and spectral nudging, in the downscaling of ncep/ncar data with the weather research and forecasting (wrf) model. the simulations are compared against the results with north america regional reanalysis (narr) data set at different scales of interest using the concept of similarity. we show that with the appropriate choice of wave numbers, spectral nudging outperforms grid nudging in the capacity of balancing the performance of simulation at the large and small scales.”
von Storch, H., Langenberg, H., & Feser, F.. (2000). A Spectral Nudging Technique for Dynamical Downscaling Purposes. Monthly Weather Review
“Abstract the ‘spectral nudging’ method imposes time-variable large-scale atmospheric states on a regional atmospheric model. it is based on the idea that regional-scale climate statistics are conditioned by the interplay between continental-scale atmospheric conditions and such regional features as marginal seas and mountain ranges. following this ‘downscaling’ idea, the regional model is forced to satisfy not only boundary conditions, possibly in a boundary sponge region, but also large-scale flow conditions inside the integration area. in the present paper the performance of spectral nudging in an extended climate simulation is examined. its success in keeping the simulated state close to the driving state at larger scales, while generating smaller-scale features is demonstrated, and it is also shown that the standard boundary forcing technique in current use allows the regional model to develop internal states conflicting with the large-scale state. it is concluded that spectral nudging may be seen as …”
French, J.. (2011). Why nudging is not enough. Journal of Social Marketing
“The purpose of this paper is to review the possible contribution of ‘nudging’ as a tactic and ‘form’ of exchange and suggest two new frameworks to aid in the description of four ‘forms’ of exchange and ‘types’ of intervention that can be used in social marketing. discursive review of the contemporary impact of liberal paternalistic thinking on policy and operational delivery of social change programmes. the paper also considers the tensions within social marketing regarding voluntary and involuntary change including the use of incentives and disincentives in social change programmes and presents a model that seeks to describe the range of options available. it is concluded that in addition to restricted, generalised and complex exchanges, as defined by bagozzi there are basically four basic ‘forms’ of exchange that can be used by governments and public institutions who apply a marketing approach to brining about positive social change. these ‘forms’ of exchange includes ‘nudging’ but also other legitimate ‘forms’ of exchange that can be called ‘shoving’, ‘ hugging’ and ‘smacking’. it is further suggested that together with these four ‘forms’ of exchange there are five basic ‘types’ of intervention that can be used to bring about change, these two elements can all be brought together in a proposed intervention matrix. the paper makes the case that a key advantage of adopting a marketing mind-set (i.e. one that is driven by consumer-centric thinking and based on the creation of value) in the selection of ‘forms’ of exchange and ‘types’ of intervention is that the selected mix will be much more likely to bring about the socially desired change because it is informed by the preferences and consent of the majority of citizens. this paper does not explicitly address the nature of social marketing. a position is taken that social marketing is what gallie has defined as an “essentially contested concept ” and what peters would term a ‘field of study’. this means that social marketing will by its nature just like many other fields of endeavour be subject to continuous debate and development. consequently, in adopting this position, the paper tacitly accepts a broad and inclusive definition of social marketing. the proposed exchange matrix and intervention matrix, together with the decides framework outlined in the paper need to be tested to discover if these models have utility in being able to accommodate existing social marketing practice and inform the select…”
Hanks, A. S., Just, D. R., Smith, L. E., & Wansink, B.. (2012). Healthy convenience: Nudging students toward healthier choices in the lunchroom. Journal of Public Health (United Kingdom)
“BACKGROUND: in the context of food, convenience is generally associated with less healthy foods. given the reality of present-biased preferences, if convenience was associated with healthier foods and less healthy foods were less convenient, people would likely consume healthier foods. this study examines the application of this principle in a school lunchroom where healthier foods were made more convenient relative to less healthy foods.nnmethods: one of two lunch lines in a cafeteria was arranged so as to display only healthier foods and flavored milk. trained field researchers collected purchase and consumption data before and after the conversion. mean comparisons were used to identify differences in selection and consumption of healthier foods, less healthy foods and chocolate milk.nnresults: sales of healthier foods increased by 18% and grams of less healthy foods consumed decreased by nearly 28%. also, healthier foods’ share of total consumption increased from 33 to 36%. lastly, we find that students increased their consumption of flavored milk, but flavored milk’s share of total consumption did not increase.nnconclusions: in a school lunchroom, a convenience line that offered only healthier food options nudged students to consume fewer unhealthy foods. this result has key implications for encouraging healthy behavior in public schools nation wide, cafeterias and other food establishments.”
Hansen, P. G., Skov, L. R., & Skov, K. L.. (2016). Making Healthy Choices Easier: Regulation versus Nudging. Annual Review of Public Health
“In recent years, the nudge approach to behavior change has emerged from the behavioral sciences to challenge the traditional use of regulation in public health strategies to address modifiable individual-level behaviors related to the rise of noncommunicable diseases and their treatment. however, integration and testing of the nudge approach as part of more comprehensive public health strategies aimed at making healthy choices easier are being threatened by inadequate understandings of its scientific character, its relationship with regulation, and its ethical implications. this article reviews this character and its ethical implication with a special emphasis on the compatibility of nudging with traditional regulation, special domains of experience, and the need for a more nuanced approach to the ethical debate. the aim is to advance readers’ understanding and give guidance to those who have considered working with or incorporating the nudge approach into programs or policies aimed at making healthful choices easier.”
In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions. They are mental shortcuts that usually involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. More at Wikipedia
Related References
Morvan, C., & Jenkins, B.. (2017). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
“This article described three heuristics that are employed in making judgements under uncertainty: (i) representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event a belongs to class or process b; (ii) availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development; and (iii) adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available. these heuristics are highly economical and usually effective, but they lead to systematic and predictable errors. a better understanding of these heuristics and of the biases to which they lead could improve judgements and decisions in situations of uncertainty.”
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A.. (1996). On the reality of cognitive illusions.. Psychological Review
“The study of heuristics and biases in judgement has been criticized in several publications by g. gigerenzer, who argues that ‘biases are not biases’ and ‘heuristics are meant to explain what does not exist’ (1991, p. 102). the article responds to gigerenzer’s critique and shows that it misrepresents the authors’ theoretical position and ignores critical evidence. contrary to gigerenzer’s central empirical claim, judgments of frequency–not only subjective probabilities–are susceptible to large and systematic biases. a postscript responds to gigerenzer’s (1996) reply.”
Busenitz, L. W., & Barney, J. B.. (1997). Differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations: Biases and heuristics in strategic decision-making. Journal of Business Venturing
“The purpose of this study was to further explore differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations. however, rather than focusing on previously examined individual differences, this study examined differences in the decision-making processes used by entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations. building on nonrational decision-making models from behavioral decision theory, we asserted that entrepreneurs are more susceptible to the use decision-making biases and heuristics than are managers in large organizations. to understand why entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations may vary in the extent to which they manifest biases and heuristics in their decision-making, it is important to understand the utility of nonrational decision-making. under conditions of environmental uncertainty and complexity, biases and heuristics can be an effective and efficient guide to decision-making. in such settings, more comprehensive and cautious decision-making is not possible, and biases and heuristics may provide an effective way to approximate the appropriate decisions. the use of heuristics has also been found to be associated with innovativeness. perhaps a critical difference between these sets of individuals is the extent to which they manifest biases and heuristics in their decision-making. we examined differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations with respect to two biases and heuristics: overconfidence (overestimating the probability of being right) and representativeness (the tendency to overgeneralize from a few characteristics or observations). in this study, entrepreneurs are those who have founded their own firms and are currently involved in the start-up process with the average time since founding of 1.7 years. the analysis for this study involved responses from 124 entrepreneurs. managers are individuals with middle to upper level responsibilities with substantial oversight in large organizations. to be included in this study, the managers had to oversee at least two functional areas (sample average was 4.55 functional areas). usable responses were received from 95 managers. the results from the logistic regression analysis show strong support for both hypotheses. even after controlling for numerous factors, such as several traits and demographic factors, enduring support was found for the way entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations make decisions. our overconfidence and representativeness…”
Benartzi, S., & Thaler, R. H.. (2007). Heuristics and Biases in Retirement Savings Behavior. Journal of Economic Perspectives
“A ll around the world, in both the public and private sectors, retirement plans are shifting away from ‘defined benefit’ plans toward ‘defined contribution’ plans.1 poterba, venti, and wise (2006), for example, fol- lowed the cohort of americans who were 45 years old in 1984 and report a decrease in defined benefit plan coverage from about 40 percent to 20 percent and a corresponding increase in defined contribution plan coverage from about 5 percent to more than 30 percent. defined contribution plans have many attrac- tive features for participants, such as portability and flexibility, but these attractions come with an increased responsibility to choose wisely. the plans also provide economists with an attractive domain in which to study saving behavior. the standard economic theories of saving (like the life-cycle or permanent income models) contain three embedded rationality assumptions, one explicit and two implicit. the explicit assumption is that savers accumulate and then decumu- late assets to maximize some lifetime utility function (possibly including bequests). the first implicit assumption is that households have the cognitive ability to solve the necessary optimization problem. the second implicit assumption is that the households also have sufficient willpower to execute this optimal plan.both of the implicit assumptions are suspect. even among economists, few spend much time calculating a personal optimal savings rate, given the uncertain- ties about future rates of return, income flows, retirement plans, health, and so forth. instead, most people cope by adopting simple heuristics, or rules of thumb. however, psychology teaches that such heuristics, though often useful and accu- rate, can lead to systematic biases (gilovich, griffen, and kahneman, 2002). in this paper, we investigate both the heuristics and the biases that emerge in the area of retirement savings. we do not discuss how to determine whether people are saving enough for retirement; that topic is covered in a companion paper by jonathan skinner in this issue. instead, we examine the decisions employees make about whether to join a savings plan, how much to contribute, and how to invest. we then discuss the possible role of interventions aiming to improve retirement decision making,”
Bottom, W. P.. (2004). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment.. Academy of Management Review
“A review is presented of the book ‘heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment,’ edited by thomas gilovich, dale griffin, and daniel kahneman.”
Gigerenzer, G.. (1991). How to make Cognitive Illusions Disappear: Beyond “Heuristics and Biases”. European Review of Social Psychology
“Most so-called ‘errors’ in probabilistic reasoning are in fact not violations of probability theory. examples of such ‘errors’ include overconfi dence bias, conjunction fallacy, and base-rate neglect. research- ers have relied on a very narrow normative view, and have ignored conceptual distinctions—for example, single case versus relative frequency—fundamental to probability theory. by recognizing and using these distinctions, however, we can make apparently stable ‘errors’ disappear, reappear, or even invert. i suggest what a reformed understanding of judgments under uncertainty might look like.”
Dale, S.. (2015). Heuristics and biases. Business Information Review
“Characteristic features of the throughout-capillary technique of in-capillary derivatization for capillary electrophoretic analysis were explored using a rapid derivatization model. selected amino acids (phenylalanine, glycine and glutamic acid) were converted to their opa derivatives, while they were moving through an electrophoretic solution containing opa in the electric field, and the resultant opa-amino acids were concurrently analyzed by zone electrophoresis with uv detection. a deep trough appeared based on sample-reagent displacement, and the base line was noisy and drifty, especially at high reagent concentrations. peaks were fronting and peak width varied among amino acid species, presumably due to the variation of the difference in velocity between an amino acid and its opa derivative. however, the throughout-capillary technique is the simplest of all techniques of pre-capillary and in-capillary derivatizations, and there was good linearity between relative peak area and amino acid concentration. the quantification was reproducible with r.s.d.~3.5%. the rate constant of the derivatization reaction could be roughly estimated by plotting logarithm of amino acid concentration vs. reaction time. the obtained values were approximately identical with the values obtained by the zone-passing technique. this paper also compares this technique with other techniques of in-capillary derivatization with respect to peak area, signal-to-noise ratio and column efficiency. copyright (c) 1998 elsevier science b.v.”
Kahneman, D.. (2016). Heuristics and biases. In Scientists Making a Difference: One Hundred Eminent Behavioral and Brain Scientists Talk about their Most Important Contributions
“This article described three heuristics that are employed in making judgements under uncertainty: (i) representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event a belongs to class or process b; (ii) availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development; and (iii) adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available. these heuristics are highly economical and usually effective, but they lead to systematic and predictable errors. a better understanding of these heuristics and of the biases to which they lead could improve judgements and decisions in situations of uncertainty.”
Park, C. W., & Lessig, V. P.. (1981). Familiarity and Its Impact on Consumer Decision Biases and Heuristics. Journal of Consumer Research
“The impact of familiarity on consumer decision biases and heuristics is examined. subjects at three different familiarity levels revealed interesting differences in perceptual category breadth, usage of functional and nonfunctional product dimensions, decision time, and confidence.”
Gilovich, T., & Griffin, D. W.. (2004). Introduction – Heuristics and Biases: Then and Now. In Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
“A review is presented of the book ‘heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment,’ edited by thomas gilovich, dale griffin, and daniel kahneman.”
Blumenthal-Barby, J. S., & Krieger, H.. (2015). Cognitive biases and heuristics in medical decision making: A critical review using a systematic search strategy. Medical Decision Making
“Background. the role of cognitive biases and heuristics in medical decision making is of growing interest. the purpose of this study was to determine whether studies on cognitive biases and heuristics in medical decision making are based on actual or hypothetical decisions and are conducted with populations that are representative of those who typically make the medical decision; to categorize the types of cognitive biases and heuristics found and whether they are found in patients or in medical personnel; and to critically review the studies based on standard methodological quality criteria. method. data sources were original, peer-reviewed, empirical studies on cognitive biases and heuristics in medical decision making found in ovid medline, psycinfo, and the cinahl databases published in 1980–2013. predefined exclusion criteria were used to identify 213 studies. during data extraction, information was collected on type of bias or heuristic studied, respondent population, decision type, study type (actu…”
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F.. (2008). On the Relative Independence of Thinking Biases and Cognitive Ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“In 7 different studies, the authors observed that a large number of thinking biases are uncorrelated with cognitive ability. these thinking biases include some of the most classic and well-studied biases in the heuristics and biases literature, including the conjunction effect, framing effects, anchoring effects, outcome bias, base-rate neglect, ‘less is more’ effects, affect biases, omission bias, myside bias, sunk-cost effect, and certainty effects that violate the axioms of expected utility theory. in a further experiment, the authors nonetheless showed that cognitive ability does correlate with the tendency to avoid some rational thinking biases, specifically the tendency to display denominator neglect, probability matching rather than maximizing, belief bias, and matching bias on the 4-card selection task. the authors present a framework for predicting when cognitive ability will and will not correlate with a rational thinking tendency. (psycinfo database record (c) 2016 apa, all rights reserved)”
Prentice, R.. (2004). Teaching ethics, heuristics and biases. Journal of Business Ethics Education
“Although economists often model decision makers as rational actors, the heuristics and biases literature that springs from the work of nobel prize winner daniel kahneman and his late colleague amos tversky demonstrates that people make decisions that depart from the optimal model in systematic ways. these cognitive and behavioral limitations not only cause inefficient decision making, but also lead people to make decisions that are unethical. this article seeks to introduce a selected portion of the heuristics and biases and related psychological literature, to highlight its implications for ethical decision making, and to serve as the basis for a lecture that could inform students regarding these matters. if business actors are on guard against errors in their own decision making processes, perhaps they can avoid some of the ethical pitfalls that recently put enron and so many other companies in the news. [publication abstract]”
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty : Heuristics and Biases Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article : Judgment under Uncertainty : Heuristics and Biases. Science
“This article describes the pathophysiology of, and treatment strategy for, cerebral ischemia. it is useful to think of an ischemic lesion as a densely ischemic core surrounded by better perfused ‘penumbra’ tissue that is silent electrically but remains viable. reperfusion plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia. magnetic resonance imaging (mri) and histological studies in rat focal ischemia models using transient middle cerebral artery (mca) occlusion indicate that reperfusion after an ischemic episode of 2- to 3-hour duration does not result in reduction of the size of the infarct. brief occlusion of the mca produces a characteristic, cell-type specific injury in the striatum where medium-sized spinous projection neurons are selectively lost; this injury is accompanied by gliosis. transient forebrain ischemia leads to delayed death of the ca1 neurons in the hippocampus. immunohistochemical and biochemical investigations of ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase ii(cam kinase ii) and protein phosphatase (calcineurin) after transient forebrain ischemia demonstrated that the activity of cam kinase ii was decreased in the ca1 region of the hippocampus early (6-12 hours) after ischemia. however, calcineurin was preserved in the ca1 region until 1.5 days after the ischemic insult and then lost; a subsequent increase in the morphological degeneration of neurons was observed. we hypothesized that an imbalance of ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein phosphorylation-dephosphorylation may be involved in delayed neuronal death after ischemia. in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke, immediate recanalization of the occluded artery, using systemic or local thrombolysis, is optimal for restoring the blood flow and rescuing the ischemic brain from complete infarction. however, the window of therapeutic effectiveness is very narrow. the development of effective neuroprotection methods and the establishment of reliable imaging modalities for an early and accurate diagnosis of the extent and degree of the ischemia are imperative.”
Kahneman, D., & Klein, G.. (2009). Conditions for Intuitive Expertise: A Failure to Disagree. American Psychologist
“This article reports on an effort to explore the differences between two approaches to intuition and expertise that are often viewed as conflicting: heuristics and biases (hb) and naturalistic decision making (ndm). starting from the obvious fact that professional intuition is sometimes marvelous and sometimes flawed, the authors attempt to map the boundary conditions that separate true intuitive skill from overconfident and biased impressions. they conclude that evaluating the likely quality of an intuitive judgment requires an assessment of the predictability of the environment in which the judgment is made and of the individual’s opportunity to learn the regularities of that environment. subjective experience is not a reliable indicator of judgment accuracy.”
Strough, J., Karns, T. E., & Schlosnagle, L.. (2011). Decision-making heuristics and biases across the life span. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
“We outline a contextual and motivational model of judgment and decision-making (jdm) biases across the life span. our model focuses on abilities and skills that correspond to deliberative, experiential, and affective decision-making processes. we review research that addresses links between jdm biases and these processes as represented by individual differences in specific abilities and skills (e.g., fluid and crystallized intelligence, executive functioning, emotion regulation, personality traits). we focus on two jdm biases-the sunk-cost fallacy (scf) and the framing effect. we trace the developmental trajectory of each bias from preschool through middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and later adulthood. we conclude that life-span developmental trajectories differ depending on the bias investigated. existing research suggests relative stability in the framing effect across the life span and decreases in the scf with age, including in later life. we highlight directions for future research on jdm biases across the life span, emphasizing the need for process-oriented research and research that increases our understanding of jdm biases in people’s everyday lives.”
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E.. (2011). The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks. Memory and Cognition
“The cognitive reflection test (crt; frederick, 2005) is designed to measure the tendency to override a prepotent response alternative that is incorrect and to engage in further reflection that leads to the correct response. in this study, we showed that the crt is a more potent predictor of performance on a wide sample of tasks from the heuristics-and-biases literature than measures of cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, and executive functioning. although the crt has a substantial correlation with cognitive ability, a series of regression analyses indicated that the crt was a unique predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks. it accounted for substantial additional variance after the other measures of individual differences had been statistically controlled. we conjecture that this is because neither intelligence tests nor measures of executive functioning assess the tendency toward miserly processing in the way that the crt does. we argue that the crt is a particularly potent measure of the tendency toward miserly processing because it is a performance measure rather than a self-report measure.”
West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E.. (2008). Heuristics and Biases as Measures of Critical Thinking: Associations with Cognitive Ability and Thinking Dispositions. Journal of Educational Psychology
“ In this article, the authors argue that there are a range of effects usually studied within cognitive psychology that are legitimately thought of as aspects of critical thinking: the cognitive biases studied in the heuristics and biases literature. in a study of 793 student participants, the authors found that the ability to avoid these biases was moderately correlated with a more traditional laboratory measure of critical thinking–the ability to reason logically when logic conflicts with prior belief. the correlation between these two classes of critical thinking skills was not due to a joint connection with general cognitive ability because it remained statistically significant after the variance due to cognitive ability was partialed out. measures of thinking dispositions (actively open-minded thinking and need for cognition) predicted unique variance in both classes of critical thinking skills after general cognitive ability had been controlled. (psycinfo database record (c) 2010 apa, all rights reserved)”
Petersen, M. B.. (2015). Evolutionary political psychology: On the origin and structure of heuristics and biases in politics. Political Psychology
“People decide on political issues by the use of judgmental short cuts called heuristics. what are the origins of these political heuristics? traditionally, heuristics have been viewed as learned from the structure of elite debates. in this article, i outline a different view: that many political heuristics are evolved, biological adaptations that evolved to help our ancestors deal with political problems in small-scale social groups. by analyzing these evolved origins, it is possible to develop novel, testable predictions on the structure of political heuristics. this argument is illustrated through an extensive review of studies on the structure of the so-called deservingness heuristic. the article concludes by outlining four principles that should guide future research on heuristics in political psychology.”
In social psychology, terror management theory (abbr. TMT) proposes a basic psychological conflict that results from having a self-preservation instinct, whilst realizing that death is inevitable and to some extent unpredictable. Researchers in the field of “experimental existential psychology” (XXP) investigate the effects of, for example, mortality salience on various social, emotional, cognitive, and physiological processes. More at Wikipedia
Further References
Greenberg, J., & Arndt, J.. (2012). Terror management theory. In Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1
“Terror management theory was developed to explain the motivational underpinnings of phenomena such as self-esteem defense and prejudice. the theory is rooted in a long tradition of thought regarding human awareness of death and its role in psychological functioning. the theory posits that to manage the potential for terror engendered by the awareness of mortaility, humans sustain faith in worldviews which provide a sense that they are significant beings in an enduring, meaningful world rather than mere material animals fated only to obliteration upon death. the theory is supported by a wide range of studies showing that self-esteem and worldviews provide protection against anxiety and death-related cognition, reminders of mortality instigate worldview bolstering and self-esteem striving, and the threats to the worldview and self-esteem increase the accessibility of death-related thoughts. the research has also led to a dual defense model of responses to concious and unconcious death thoughts. we then focus on two of many topics informed by the theory; attitudes and behavior regarding physical health, an political preferences and intergroup conflict. we then consider factors that mitigate destructive forms of terror management. finally, we briefly summarize the contribution of terror management work so far and where it’s heading.”
Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & McGregor, H.. (1997). Terror Management Theory and Self-Esteem: Evidence That Increased Self-Esteem Reduces Mortality Salience Effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“On the basis of the terror management theory proposition that self-esteem provides protection against concerns about mortality, it was hypothesized that self-esteem would reduce the worldview defense produced by mortality salience (ms). the results of experiments 1 and 2 confirmed this hypothesis by showing that individuals with high self-esteem (manipulated in experiment 1; dispositional in experiment 2) did not respond to ms with increased worldview defense, whereas individuals with moderate self-esteem did. the results of experiment 3 suggested that the effects of the first 2 experiments may have occurred because high self-esteem facilitates the suppression of death con-structs following ms. the questions of why individuals need self-esteem and how they cope with their awareness of death are challenging ones that have fascinated and puzzled philosophers and social theo-rists (e.g., plato, kierkegaard, norman brown, william james) for centuries. terror management theory, based primarily on the writings of ernest becker (1962, 1971, 1973, 1975) and otto rank (1936, 1941), posits that self-esteem is sought because it provides protection against the fear of death (greenberg, pysz-czynski, & solomon, 1986; solomon, greenberg, & pyszczyn-ski, 1991a). from this perspective, the fear of death is rooted in an instinct for self-preservation that humans share with other species. although we share this instinct with other species, only we are aware that death is inevitable–that is, that our self-preservation instinct will inevitably be thwarted. this combina-tion of an instinctive drive for self-preservation with an aware-ness of the inevitability of death creates the potential for paralyz-ing terror. this potential for terror is managed by a cultural anxiety buffer, consisting of the cultural worldview and self-esteem. the cultural worldview is defined as a set of beliefs about the nature”
Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T.. (1997). Terror Management Theory of Self-Esteem and Cultural Worldviews: Empirical Assessments and Conceptual Refinements. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
“This chapter proposes that the potential for abject terror created by the awareness of the inevitability of death in an animal instinctively programmed for self-preservation and continued experience lies at the root of a great deal of human motivation and behavior. this chapter presents the results of a substantial body of research that attests to the broad influence of the problem of death on human social behavior and illuminates the processes through which concerns about mortality exert their influence. the chapter overviews the primary assumptions and propositions of terror management theory and a description of the initial research conducted to test the theory. it presents a detailed consideration of more recent research that establishes the convergent and discriminant validity of the mortality salience treatment and the robustness of its effects through the use of alternative mortality salience treatments and comparison treatments, and replications by other researchers; it extends the range of interpersonal behaviors that are demonstrably influenced by terror management concerns. moreover, it demonstrates the interaction of mortality salience with other theoretically relevant situational and dispositional variables, and provides an account of the cognitive processes through which mortality salience produces its effects. finally, this chapter discusses the relation of terror management motives to other psychological motives and gives a consideration of issues requiring further investigation.”
Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H.. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review
“A meta-analysis was conducted on empirical trials investigating the mortality salience (ms) hypothesis of terror management theory (tmt). tmt postulates that investment in cultural worldviews and self-esteem serves to buffer the potential for death anxiety; the ms hypothesis states that, as a consequence, accessibility of death-related thought (ms) should instigate increased worldview and self-esteem defense and striving. overall, 164 articles with 277 experiments were included. ms yielded moderate effects (r =.35) on a range of worldview- and self-esteem-related dependent variables (dvs), with effects increased for experiments using (a) american participants,(b) college students,(c) a longer delay between ms and the dv,and (d) people-related attitudes as the dv. gender and self-esteem may moderate ms effects differently than previously thought. results are compared to other reviews and examined with regard to alternative explanations of tmt. finally, suggestions for future research are offered.”
Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Harmon-Jones, E., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., & Abend, T.. (1997). Terror management and cognitive-experiential self-theory: Evidence that terror management occurs in the experiential system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“The authors hypothesized, on the basis of terror management theory and cognitive-experiential self-theory, that participants in an experiential mode of thinking would respond to mortality salience with increased worldview defense and increased accessibility of death-related thoughts, whereas participants in a rational mode would not. results from 3 studies provided convergent evidence that when participants were in an experiential mode, mortality salience produced the typical worldview defense effect, but when participants were in a rational mode it did not. study 4 revealed that mortality salience also led to a delayed increase in the accessibility of death-related thoughts only when participants were in an experiential mode. these results supported the notion that worldwide defense is intensified only if individuals are in an experiential mode when considering their mortality. discussion focuses on implications for understanding terror management processes.”
Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., Paladino, M. P., & Sacchi, S.. (2002). I belong, therefore, I exist: Ingroup identification, ingroup entitativity, and ingroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
“Merging insights from the intergroup relations literature and terror management theory, the authors conducted an experiment in which they assessed the impact of death-related thoughts on a series of ingroup measures. participants in the mortality salience condition displayed stronger ingroup identification, perceived greater ingroup entitativily, and scored higher on ingroup bias measures. also, perceived ingroup entitativily as well as ingroup identification mediated the effect of the mortality salience manipulation on ingroup bias. the findings are discussed in relation to theories of intergroup relations and terror management theory. a new perspective on the function of group belonging also is presented.”
Vail, K. E., Rothschild, Z. K., Weise, D. R., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J.. (2010). A terror management analysis of the psychological functions of religion. Personality and Social Psychology Review
“From a terror management theory (tmt) perspective, religion serves to manage the potential terror engendered by the uniquely human awareness of death by affording a sense of psychological security and hope of immortality. although secular beliefs can also serve a terror management function, religious beliefs are particularly well suited to mitigate death anxiety because they are all encompassing, rely on concepts that are not easily disconfirmed, and promise literal immortality. research is reviewed demonstrating that mortality salience produces increased belief in afterlife, supernatural agency, human ascension from nature, and spiritual distinctions between mind and body. the social costs and benefits of religious beliefs are considered and compared to those of secular worldviews. the terror management functions of, and benefits and costs associated with, different types of religious orientation, such as intrinsic religiosity, quest, and religious fundamentalism, are then examined. finally, the tmt analysis is compared to other accounts of religion.”
Cohen, F., & Solomon, S.. (2011). The politics of mortal terror. Current Directions in Psychological Science
“Terror-management theory is used to examine how political preferences are altered when existential concerns are aroused. the theory posits that the uniquely human awareness of death engenders potentially debilitating terror that is managed through devotion to cultural worldviews that give individuals a sense that life has meaning and that they have value. research shows that mortality salience increases adherence to cherished cultural values and instigates efforts to bolster self-esteem. here we review research documenting the role of terror-management processes in promoting support for charismatic leaders who share one’s cherished beliefs and aggression against those who hold rival beliefs. implications for fostering effective participatory democracy are considered.”
Martens, A., Goldenberg, J. L., & Greenberg, J.. (2005). A terror management perspective on ageism. Journal of Social Issues
“In the present article, we present a theoretical perspective on ageism that is derived from terror management theory. according to the theory, human beings manage deeply-rooted fears about their vulnerability to death through symbolic constructions of meaning and corresponding standards of value. we extend this perspective to suggest that elderly individuals present an existential threat for the non-elderly because they remind us all that: (a) death is inescapable, (b) the body is fallible, and (c) the bases by which we may secure self-esteem (and manage death anxiety) are transitory. we review some recent empirical evidence in support of these ideas and then discuss possible avenues for combating ageism.”
Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J.. (2015). Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory: From Genesis to Revelation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
“Terror management theory posits that human awareness of the inevitability of death exerts a profound influence on diverse aspects of human thought, emotion, motivation, and behavior. people manage the potential for anxiety that results from this awareness by maintaining: (1) faith in the absolute validity of their cultural worldviews and (2) self-esteem by living up to the standards of value that are part of their worldviews. in this chapter, we take stock of the past 30 years of research and conceptual development inspired by this theory. after a brief review of evidence supporting the theory’s fundamental propositions, we discuss extensions of the theory to shed light on: (1) the psychological mechanisms through which thoughts of death affect subsequent thought and behavior; (2) how the anxiety-buffering systems develop over childhood and beyond; (3) how awareness of death influenced the evolution of mind, culture, morality, and religion; (4) how death concerns lead people to distance from their physical bodies and seek solace in concepts of mind and spirit; and (5) the role of death concerns in maladaptive and pathological behavior. we also consider various criticisms of the theory and alternative conceptualizations that have been proposed. we conclude with a discussion of what we view as the most pressing issues for further research and theory development that have been inspired by the theory’s first 30 years.”
Heine, S. J., Harihara, M., & Niiya, Y.. (2002). Terror management in Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology
“Do terror management effects generalize to non-western cultures? this question is significant because terror management theory offers an explanation of the origin of self-esteem, whereas other research finds divergent self-esteem motivations across cultures. the effects of mortality salience (ms) on the dual-component anxiety buffer were investigated in japan. a control group and a ms group were given an opportunity: (i) to defend their cultural worldview by derogating an anti-japan essay writer; and (ii) to boost their value within their cultures by indicating a greater desire for high-status over low-status products. replicating past research with western samples, japanese in a ms condition were more critical of the anti-japan essay writer and they indicated a marginal tendency to prefer high- over low-status products, compared with a control group. the theoretical implications are discussed.”
Jonas, E., Martens, A., Kayser, D. N., Fritsche, I., Sullivan, D., & Greenberg, J.. (2008). Focus Theory of Normative Conduct and Terror-Management Theory: The Interactive Impact of Mortality Salience and Norm Salience on Social Judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“Research on terror-management theory has shown that after mortality salience (ms) people attempt to live up to cultural values. but cultures often value very different and sometimes even contradictory standards, leading to difficulties in predicting behavior as a consequence of terror-management needs. the authors report 4 studies to demonstrate that the effect of ms on people’s social judgments depends on the salience of norms. in study 1, making salient opposite norms (prosocial vs. proself) led to reactions consistent with the activated norms following ms compared with the control condition. study 2 showed that, in combination with a pacifism prime, ms increased pacifistic attitudes. in study 3, making salient a conservatism/security prime led people to recommend harsher bonds for an illegal prostitute when they were reminded of death, whereas a benevolence prime counteracted this effect. in study 4 a help prime, combined with ms, increased people’s helpfulness. discussion focuses briefly on how these findings inform both terror-management theory and the focus theory of normative conduct.”
Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Arndt, J., & Schimel, J.. (2004). Why do people need self-esteem? A theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin
“Terror management theory (tmt; j. greenberg, t. pyszczynski, & s. solomon, 1986) posits that people are motivated to pursue positive self-evaluations because self-esteem provides a buffer against the omnipresent potential for anxiety engendered by the uniquely human awareness of mortality. empirical evidence relevant to the theory is reviewed showing that high levels of self-esteem reduce anxiety and anxiety-related defensive behavior, reminders of one’s mortality increase self-esteem striving and defense of self-esteem against threats in a variety of domains, high levels of self-esteem eliminate the effect of reminders of mortality on both self-esteem striving and the accessibility of death-related thoughts, and convincing people of the existence of an afterlife eliminates the effect of mortality salience on self-esteem striving. tmt is compared with other explanations for why people need self-esteem, and a critique of the most prominent of these, sociometer theory, is provided.”
Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T.. (1991). A Terror Management Theory of Social Behavior: The Psychological Functions of Self-Esteem and Cultural Worldviews. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Greenberg, J., & Kosloff, S.. (2008). Terror Management Theory: Implications for Understanding Prejudice, Stereotyping, Intergroup Conflict, and Political Attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass
“Terror management theory posits that to maintain psychological security despite the awareness of personal mortality, humans must maintain faith in cultural worldviews. these worldviews provide ways for humans to believe they are significant enduring beings in a world of meaning rather than mere animals fated only to obliteration upon death. we review basic support for terror management theory and research exploring the implications of terror management theory for understanding prejudice, stereo- typing, intergroup conflict, and political attitudes. this research shows that when the psychological need to defend these worldviews is heightened by reminders of death (mortality salience), prejudice, stereotyping, and support for charismatic leaders and aggression against outgroups is increased. terror management concerns also lead targets of prejudice to disidentify with their ingroup and confirm negative stereotypes of their group. we conclude by considering the implications of terror management theory and research for the alleviation of prejudice and intergroup conflict.”
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S.. (1986). The Causes and Consequences of a Need for Self-Esteem: A Terror Management Theory. In Public Self and Private Self
“Four selves, two motives, and a substitute process self-regulation model”
Landau, M. J., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Cohen, F., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J., … Cook, A.. (2004). Deliver us from evil: The effects of mortality salience and reminders of 9/11 on support for President George W. Bush. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
“According to terror management theory, heightened concerns about mortality should intensify the appeal of charismatic lead- ers. to assess this idea, we investigated how thoughts about death and the 9/11 terrorist attacks influence americans’ atti- tudes toward current u.s. president george w. bush. study 1 found that reminding people of their own mortality (mortality salience) increased support for bush and his counterterrorism policies. study 2 demonstrated that subliminal exposure to 9/ 11-related stimuli brought death-related thoughts closer to con- sciousness. study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for bush. in study 4, mortality salience led participants to become more favorable toward bush and vot- ing for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward presidential candidate john kerry and voting for him. discus- sion focused on the role of terror management processes in allegiance to charismatic leaders and political decision making.”
Jonas, E., & Fischer, P.. (2006). Terror management and religion: Evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“Terror management theory suggests that people cope with awareness of death by investing in some kind of literal or symbolic immortality. given the centrality of death transcendence beliefs in most religions, the authors hypothesized that religious beliefs play a protective role in managing terror of death. the authors report three studies suggesting that affirming intrinsic religiousness reduces both death-thought accessibility following mortality salience and the use of terror management defenses with regard to a secular belief system. study 1 showed that after a naturally occurring reminder of mortality, people who scored high on intrinsic religiousness did not react with worldview defense, whereas people low on intrinsic religiousness did. study 2 specified that intrinsic religious belief mitigated worldview defense only if participants had the opportunity to affirm their religious beliefs. study 3 illustrated that affirmation of religious belief decreased death-thought accessibility following mortality salience only for those participants who scored high on the intrinsic religiousness scale. taken as a whole, these results suggest that only those people who are intrinsically vested in their religion derive terror management benefits from religious beliefs.”
Cozzolino, P. J., Staples, A. D., Meyers, L. S., & Samboceti, J.. (2004). Greed, Death, and Values: From Terror Management to Transcendence Management Theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
“Research supporting terror management theory has shown that participants facing their death (via mortality salience) exhibit more greed than do control participants. the present research attempts to distinguish mortality salience from other forms of mortality awareness. specifically, the authors look to reports of near-death experiences and posttraumatic growth which reveal that many people who nearly die come to view seeking wealth and possession as empty and meaningless. guided by these reports, a manipulation called death reflection was generated. in study 1, highly extrinsic participants who experienced death reflection exhibited intrinsic behavior. in study 2, the manipulation was validated, and in study 3, death reflection and mortality salience manipulations were compared. results showed that mortality salience led highly extrinsic participants to manifest greed, whereas death reflection again generated intrinsic, unselfish behavior. the construct of value orientation is discussed along with the contrast between death reflection manipulation and mortality salience.”
Florian, V., & Mikulincer, M.. (1997). Fear of death and the judgment of social transgressions: A multidimensional test of terror management theory.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“The purpose of the research was to integrate a multidimensional approach to fear of personal death with terror management theory. in study 1, 190 students were divided according to the manipulation of death salience and the intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects of fear of death and were asked to judge transgressions that have either intrapersonal or interpersonal consequences. study 2 was a conceptual replication of study 1, with the exception that the manipulation of mortality salience included conditions that made salient either intrapersonal or interpersonal aspects of death. findings indicate that the effects of mortality salience depend on the aspect of death that is made salient, the aspect of death that individuals most fear, and the type of the judged transgression. more severe judgments of transgressions after death salience manipulation were found mainly when there was a fit between these 3 factors. findings are discussed in light of terror management theory.”
Arndt, J., Solomon, S., Kasser, T., & Sheldon, K. M.. (2004). The urge to splurge: A terror management account of materialism and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology
“This article presents terror management theory (tmt) as a way to understand how the human awareness of death affects materialism, conspicuous consumption, and consumer decisions. the pursuit of wealth and culturally desired commodities are hypothesized to reinforce those beliefs that function to protect people from existential anxieties. following a brief overview of tmt and research, evidence is reviewed that explicates how intimations of mortality increase materialism as a way to enhance self-esteem and affects consumer decisions that support one’s cultural worldview. adverse consequences of materialistic and consumeristic worldviews are described and the challenges for future research to discover ways to alleviate them are considered.”
Dual process theory in psychology suggests that thinking operates via two distinct systems: an implicit system, which is automatic and unconscious, and an explicit system, which is controlled and conscious. Explicit attitudes and behaviors can be modified relatively quickly through persuasion or education, whereas implicit attitudes usually take longer to change and often require the establishment of new habits. These theories are central to various branches of psychology, including social, personality, cognitive, and clinical psychology. They also intersect with economics, especially in the contexts of prospect theory and behavioral economics, and are gaining prominence in sociological studies through cultural analysis.
* * *
Dual-process models of cognition: A multifarious nomenclature (or a terminological pandemonium)
automatic vs. controlled (Kahneman, 2003)
associative vs. rule based (Sloman, 1996)
heuristic vs. analytic (Klaczynski, 2001)
personal vs. subpersonal (Frankish, 2009)
analogue vs. symbolic (Paivio, 1986)
reflexive vs. reflective (Lieberman et al., 2002)
heuristic vs. systematic (Chaiken, 1980)
peripheral vs. central (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981)
implicit vs. explicit (Greenwald et al., 1998)
automatic vs. conscious (Baumeister, 2005)
experiential vs. noetic (Strack & Deutsch, 2004)
intuitive vs. reflective (Sperber, 1997)
associative vs. propositional (Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006)
etc. pp.
It has been noted that “what matters is not the specific names but the fact of duality” (Baumeister, 2005, p.75).
Summary of the features attributed to each system
System 1
System 2
Evolutionarily old
Unconcious, preconcious
Shared with animals
Implicit knowledge
Automatic
Fast
Parallel
High capacity
Intuitive
Contextualized
Pragmatic
Associative
Independent of general intelligence
Evolutionarily recent
Concious
Uniquely (distinctively) human
Explicit knowledge
Controlled
Slow
Sequential
Low capacity
Reflective
Abstract
Logical
Rule-based
Linked to general intelligence
Adapted from Frankish, K. (2009). Systems and levels: Dual-system theorie and the personal-subpersonal distinction. In J. S. B. T. Evans & K. Frankish (Eds.), In two minds: Dual processes and beyond (p. 89-108). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Further References
Groves, P. M., & Thompson, R. F.. (1970). Habituation: A dual-process theory. Psychological Review
“Presented a dual-process theory of response plasticity to repeated stimulation. 2 hypothetical processes, 1 decremental (habituation) and 1 incremental (sensitization), are assumed to develop independently in the cns and interact to yield the final behavioral outcome. behavioral experiments are presented, using both the hindlimb flexion reflex of acute spinal cat and the acoustic startle response of intact rat, which are consistent with this theory. neurophysiological experiments indicate that the 2 processes have separate and distinct neuronal substrates. the dual-process theory and other current theories of response habituation are evaluated in terms of these and other recent findings. (6 p. ref.)”
Wixted, J. T.. (2007). Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychological Review
“Two influential models of recognition memory, the unequal-variance signal-detection model and a dual-process threshold/detection model, accurately describe the receiver operating characteristic, but only the latter model can provide estimates of recollection and familiarity. such estimates often accord with those provided by the remember-know procedure, and both methods are now widely used in the neuroscience literature to identify the brain correlates of recollection and familiarity. however, in recent years, a substantial literature has accumulated directly contrasting the signal-detection model against the threshold/detection model, and that literature is almost unanimous in its endorsement of signal-detection theory. a dual-process version of signal-detection theory implies that individual recognition decisions are not process pure, and it suggests new ways to investigate the brain correlates of recognition memory.”
Greene, J. D.. (2009). Dual-process morality and the personal/impersonal distinction: A reply to McGuire, Langdon, Coltheart, and Mackenzie. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Stanovich, K. E.. (2012). Distinguishing the reflective, algorithmic, and autonomous minds: Is it time for a tri-process theory?. In In Two Minds: Dual Processes and Beyond
“Building upon work which considers the implications dual-process theory for the great rationality debate in cognitive science, this chapter advances that discussion, first by discussing additions and complications to dual-process theory and then by working through the implications of these ideas for our view of human rationality. it argues that system 2 needs to be understood in terms of two levels of processing: the algorithmic and the reflective.”
Pelaccia, T., Tardif, J., Triby, E., & Charlin, B.. (2011). An analysis of clinical reasoning through a recent and comprehensive approach: The dual-process theory. Medical Education Online
“CONTEXT: clinical reasoning plays a major role in the ability of doctors to make diagnoses and decisions. it is considered as the physician’s most critical competence, and has been widely studied by physicians, educationalists, psychologists and sociologists. since the 1970s, many theories about clinical reasoning in medicine have been put forward. purpose: this paper aims at exploring a comprehensive approach: the ‘dual-process theory’, a model developed by cognitive psychologists over the last few years. discussion: after 40 years of sometimes contradictory studies on clinical reasoning, the dual-process theory gives us many answers on how doctors think while making diagnoses and decisions. it highlights the importance of physicians’ intuition and the high level of interaction between analytical and non-analytical processes. however, it has not received much attention in the medical education literature. the implications of dual-process models of reasoning in terms of medical education will be discussed.”
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T.. (1999). The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current status and controversies. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology
“The elm contends information gets processed either centrally (effortful, scrutiny) or peripherally (heuristics) depending on their motivation and ability to process the information. this chapter looks back on 20 years of research since the ‘two routes to persuasion’ (central and peripheral) was introduced (petty, 1977; petty and cacioppo, 1981). the chapter provides an overview of the model in order to discuss some of the major conceputal questions and confusions that have arisen. the seven postulates of the theory are presented and the research related to them is reviewed. the current status of the elaboration likelihood model (elm) as a theory of persuastion and of social judgment is reviewed. elm overview: in 1977, petty introduced the idea of two routes of persuasion positing that central and peripheral processing occurred. the elm was formulated as a theory about how the classic the source (expertise), message (number of arguments), recipient (mood), and contextual (distraction) variables have an impact on attitudes towards various objects, issues, and people. more generally, the theory can be used to understand how any external or internal variable has an impact on some evaluative or nonevaluative judgement. central-route attitude changes are those that are based on relatively extensive and effortful information-processing activity, aimed at scrutinizing and uncoverying the central merits of the issue or advocacy. peripheral-route attitude changes are based on a variety of attitude change processes that typically require less cognitive effort. they may differ in quantitative or qualitative ways from the central process route. the central construct is the elaboration continuum. at the high end of the elaboration continuum, people assess object-relevant information in relation to knowledge that they already posses, and arrive at a reasoned attitude that is well articulated and bolstered by supporting information. at the low end, information scrutiny is reduced. where one lies on the continuum is determined by the motivation and ability of the perceiver on the issue. the continuum is supported by the idea that people are sometimes cognitive misers (taylor, 1981), but at other times it pays to use more cognitive resources. see summary graph pg 43. seven postulates: postulate 1: the correctness postulate – people are motivated to hold correct attitudes. sumary 1: at the conscious level, people want to hold opinoins that are correct. in the absence of o…”
Barrouillet, P.. (2011). Dual-process theories and cognitive development: Advances and challenges. Developmental Review
Greene, J. D., Morelli, S. A., Lowenberg, K., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D.. (2008). Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian moral judgment. Cognition
“This article begins with a brief review of the current literature on the structure and measurement of perfectionism. it is concluded from this review that 2 major types can be distinguished: a normal/healthy form and a pathological form. these 2 forms are then defined as positive and negative perfectionism and related directly to skinnerian concepts of positive and negative reinforcement. the positive/negative distinction is then further elaborated on in terms of approach/avoidance behavior, goal differences, self-concept involvement, emotional correlates, and the promoting environment. finally, some of the more obvious theoretical and practical implications are briefly explored. (psycinfo database record (c) 2008 apa, all rights reserved).”
Sowden, P. T., Pringle, A., & Gabora, L.. (2015). The shifting sands of creative thinking: Connections to dual-process theory. Thinking and Reasoning
“Dual-process models of cognition suggest that there are two types of thought: autonomous type 1 processes and working memory dependent type 2 processes that support hypothetical thinking. models of creative thinking also distinguish between two sets of thinking processes: those involved in the generation of ideas and those involved with their refinement, evaluation, and/or selection. here we review dual-process models in both these literatures and delineate the similarities and differences. both generative creative processing and evaluative creative processing involve elements that have been attributed to each of the dual processes of cognition. we explore the notion that creative thinking may rest upon the nature of a shifting process between type 1 and type 2 dual processes. we suggest that a synthesis of the evidence bases on dual-process models of cognition and of creative thinking, together with developing time-based approaches to explore the shifting process, could better inform the development of interventions to facilitate creativity.”
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J.. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review
“Two experiments were conducted to assess the impact of status differentials on subgroup attitudes and behaviours. in experiment 1, 73 math-science students were led to believe they had higher or lower status than humanities students. they then performed a non-interactive decision-making task during which they were categorized exclusively as a university student (superordinate condition), or as a university student and math-science student simultaneously (subgroups condition). experiment 2 (n = 98) differed from experiment 1 in that perceptions of relative subgroup status were measured rather than manipulated. consistent with social identity theory, subgroup members tended to categorize themselves more at the superordinate (university) level the lower status they considered their subgroup to be. in experiment 2, a series of interactions also emerged, showing that status and inter-subgroup bias were positively related when the participants had been categorized exclusively at the superordinate level. when superordinate and subgroup identities were activated simultaneously, perceptions of status had no effect on levels of bias. the results were interpreted in terms of participants’ needs for identity enhancement and identity distinctiveness.”
Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J.. (1999). A dual-process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory. Psychological Review
“Distinct defensive processes are activated by conscious and nonconscious but accessible thoughts of death. proximal defenses, which entail suppressing death-related thoughts or pushing the problem of death into the distant future by denying one’s vulnerability, are rational, threat-focused, and activated when thoughts of death are in current focal attention. distal terror management defenses, which entail maintaining self-esteem and faith in one’s cultural worldview, function to control the potential for anxiety that results from knowing that death is inevitable. these defenses are experiential, are not related to the problem of death in any semantic or logical way, and are increasingly activated as the accessibility of death-related thoughts increases, up to the point at which such thoughts enter consciousness and proximal threat-focused defenses are initiated. experimental evidence for this analysis is presented. (psycinfo database record (c) 2013 apa, all rights reserved). (journal abstract)”
Knowles, E. S., & Condon, C. A.. (1999). Why people say “yes”: A dual-process theory of acquiescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
“In 3 studies the authors investigated yea-saying acquiescence from the standpoint of d. t. gilbert’s (1991) 2-stage model of comprehension, wherein comprehension requires automatic acceptance during the first stage, which is then reconsidered and evaluated during a more effortful second stage.”
Gawronski, B.. (2013). What should we expect from a dual-process theory of preference construction in choice?. Journal of Consumer Psychology
“The hypothesis that human reasoning and decision-making can be roughly modeled by expected utility theory has been at the core of decision science. accumulating evidence has led researchers to modify the hypothesis. one of the latest additions to the field is dual process theory, which attempts to explain variance between participants and tasks when it comes to deviations from expected utility theory. it is argued that dual process theories at this point cannot replace previous theories, since they, among other things, lack a firm conceptual framework, and have no means of producing independent evidence for their case.”
De Neys, W.. (2017). Dual process theory 2.0. Dual Process Theory 2.0
“In psychology, a dual process theory provides an account of how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. often, the two processes consist of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process. verbalized explicit processes or attitudes and actions may change with persuasion or education; though implicit process or attitudes usually take a long amount of time to change with the forming of new habits. dual process theories can be found in social, personality, cognitive, and clinical psychology.”
Reyna, V. F.. (2004). How People Make Decisions That Involve Risk: A Dual-Processes Approach. Current Directions in Psychological Science
“Many health and safety problems, including war and terrorism, are by-products of how people reason about risk. i describe a new approach to reasoning about risk that imple-ments a modern dual-process model of memory called fuzzy-trace theory. this approach posits encoding of both verbatim and gist representations, with reliance on the latter whenever possible; dependence of reasoning on retrieval cues that access stored values and principles; and vulnerability of reasoning to processing interference from overlapping classes of events, which causes denominator neglect in risk or probability judg-ments. these simple principles explain classic and new findings, for example, the finding that people overestimate small risks but ignore very small risks. fuzzy-trace theory differs from other dual-process approaches to reasoning in that it places intuition at the apex of development, considering fuzzy intuitive process-ing more advanced than precise computational processing (e.g., trading off risks and rewards). the theory supplies a conception of rationality that distinguishes degrees of severity of errors in reasoning. it also includes a mechanism for achieving con-sistency in reasoning, a hallmark of rationality, by explaining how a person can treat superficially different reasoning problems in the same way if the problems share an underlying gist. keywords—risk perception; risky decision making; fuzzy-trace theory; intuition; dual processes in reasoning as i write these words, coalition troops are at war in iraq. the decision to go to war with iraq, like many decisions, was based on a perception of risk, that is, the perceived threat posed by iraq under saddam hussein. key government officials also believed that inaction with respect to iraq posed a greater risk than taking action. since sep-tember 11, 2001, foreign threats and risks of terrorism have loomed large in people’s perception, dwarfing perennial killers such as highway accidents and heart disease. in this article, i discuss the psychological factors that shape the perception of many kinds of risks and the decisions that involve those risks.”
Bago, B., & De Neys, W.. (2017). Fast logic?: Examining the time course assumption of dual process theory. Cognition
“Influential dual process models of human thinking posit that reasoners typically produce a fast, intuitive heuristic (i.e., type-1) response which might subsequently be overridden and corrected by slower, deliberative processing (i.e., type-2). in this study we directly tested this time course assumption. we used a two response paradigm in which participants have to give an immediate answer and afterwards are allowed extra time before giving a final response. in four experiments we used a range of procedures (e.g., challenging response deadline, concurrent load) to knock out type 2 processing and make sure that the initial response was intuitive in nature. our key finding is that we frequently observe correct, logical responses as the first, immediate response. response confidence and latency analyses indicate that these initial correct responses are given fast, with high confidence, and in the face of conflicting heuristic responses. findings suggest that fast and automatic type 1 processing also cues a correct logical response from the start. we sketch a revised dual process model in which the relative strength of different types of intuitions determines reasoning performance.”
The elaboration likelihood model (acronymised as ELM) of persuasion is a dual process theory describing the change of attitudes. The ELM was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in 1986. The model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change. The ELM proposes two major routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.
Remark: An argumentum ab inconvenienti is one based on the difficulties involved in pursuing a line of reasoning, and is thus a form of appeal to consequences.
“The elaboration likelihood model (elm) of → persuasion, developed by richard petty, john cacioppo, and their collaborators, is an example of a ‘dual‐process’ approach to persuasion (another example is chaiken’s heuristic‐systematic model, hsm). the elm suggests that important variations in the nature of persuasion are a function of the likelihood that receivers will engage in elaboration of (that is, thinking about) information relevant to the persuasive issue. depending on the degree of elaboration, two different kinds of persuasion process can be engaged – one involving systematic thinking and the other involving cognitive shortcuts. different factors influence persuasive outcomes depending on which process is activated.”
Petty, R. E., & Bri??ol, P.. (2012). The elaboration likelihood model. In Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1
“The elaboration likelihood model states that there are two routes through which persuasive messages are processed: the central route, which provides complete information and is straightforward, and the peripheral route, which uses means like catchy tunes, colors, and celebrity endorsements.”
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T.. (1999). The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current status and controversies. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology
“The elm contends information gets processed either centrally (effortful, scrutiny) or peripherally (heuristics) depending on their motivation and ability to process the information. this chapter looks back on 20 years of research since the ‘two routes to persuasion’ (central and peripheral) was introduced (petty, 1977; petty and cacioppo, 1981). the chapter provides an overview of the model in order to discuss some of the major conceputal questions and confusions that have arisen. the seven postulates of the theory are presented and the research related to them is reviewed. the current status of the elaboration likelihood model (elm) as a theory of persuastion and of social judgment is reviewed. elm overview: in 1977, petty introduced the idea of two routes of persuasion positing that central and peripheral processing occurred. the elm was formulated as a theory about how the classic the source (expertise), message (number of arguments), recipient (mood), and contextual (distraction) variables have an impact on attitudes towards various objects, issues, and people. more generally, the theory can be used to understand how any external or internal variable has an impact on some evaluative or nonevaluative judgement. central-route attitude changes are those that are based on relatively extensive and effortful information-processing activity, aimed at scrutinizing and uncoverying the central merits of the issue or advocacy. peripheral-route attitude changes are based on a variety of attitude change processes that typically require less cognitive effort. they may differ in quantitative or qualitative ways from the central process route. the central construct is the elaboration continuum. at the high end of the elaboration continuum, people assess object-relevant information in relation to knowledge that they already posses, and arrive at a reasoned attitude that is well articulated and bolstered by supporting information. at the low end, information scrutiny is reduced. where one lies on the continuum is determined by the motivation and ability of the perceiver on the issue. the continuum is supported by the idea that people are sometimes cognitive misers (taylor, 1981), but at other times it pays to use more cognitive resources. see summary graph pg 43. seven postulates: postulate 1: the correctness postulate – people are motivated to hold correct attitudes. sumary 1: at the conscious level, people want to hold opinoins that are correct. in the absence of o…”
Kitchen, P. J., Kerr, G., Schultz, D. E., McColl, R., & Pals, H.. (2014). The elaboration likelihood model: Review, critique and research agenda. European Journal of Marketing
“Purpose – the purpose of this paper is to review, critique and develop a research agenda for the elaboration likelihood model (elm). the model was introduced by petty and cacioppo over three decades ago and has been modified, revised and extended. given modern communication contexts, it is appropriate to question the model’s validity and relevance. design/methodology/approach – the authors develop a conceptual approach, based on a fully comprehensive and extensive review and critique of elm and its development since its inception. findings – this paper focuses on major issues concerning the elm. these include model assumptions and its descriptive nature; continuum questions, multi-channel processing and mediating variables before turning to the need to replicate the elm and to offer recommendations for its future development. research limitations/implications – this paper offers a series of questions in terms of research implications. these include whether elm could or should be replicated, its extension, a greater conceptualization of argument quality, an explanation of movement along the continuum and between central and peripheral routes to persuasion, or to use new methodologies and technologies to help better understanding consume thinking and behaviour? all these relate to the current need to explore the relevance of elm in a more modern context. practical implications – it is time to question the validity and relevance of the elm. the diversity of on- and off-line media options and the variants of consumer choice raise significant issues. originality/value – while theelmmodel continues to be widely cited and taught as one of the major cornerstones of persuasion, questions are raised concerning its relevance and validity in 21st century communication contexts.”
Tam, K. Y., & Ho, S. Y.. (2005). Web personalization as a persuasion strategy: An elaboration likelihood model perspective. Information Systems Research
“W ith advances in tracking and database technologies, firms are increasingly able to understand their cus-tomers and translate this understanding into products and services that appeal to them. technologies such as collaborative filtering, data mining, and click-stream analysis enable firms to customize their offerings at the individual level. while there has been a lot of hype about web personalization recently, our understand-ing of its effectiveness is far from conclusive. drawing on the elaboration likelihood model (elm) literature, this research takes the view that the interaction between a firm and its customers is one of communicating a persuasive message to the customers driven by business objectives. in particular, we examine three major elements of a web personalization strategy: level of preference matching, recommendation set size, and sorting cue. these elements can be manipulated by a firm in implementing its personalization strategy. this research also investigates a personal disposition, need for cognition, which plays a role in assessing the effectiveness of web personalization. research hypotheses are tested using 1,000 subjects in three field experiments based on a ring-tone download website. our findings indicate the saliency of these variables in different stages of the persuasion process. theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.”
Bhattacherjee, & Sanford. (2006). Influence Processes for Information Technology Acceptance: An Elaboration Likelihood Model. MIS Quarterly
“This study examines how processes of external influence shape information technology acceptance among potential users, how such influence effects vary across a user population, and whether these effects are persistent over time. drawing on the elaboration-likelihood model (elm), we compared two alternative influenceprocesses, the central and peripheral routes, in motivating it acceptance. these processes were respectively operationalized using the argument quality and source credibility constructs, and linked to perceived usefulness and attitude, the core perceptual drivers of it acceptance. we further examined how these influenceprocesses were moderated by users’ it expertise and perceived job relevance and the temporal stability of such influence effects. nine hypotheses thus developed were empirically validated using a field survey of document management system acceptance at an eastern european governmental agency. this study contributes to the it acceptance literature by introducing elm as a referent theory for acceptance research, by elaborating alternative modes of influence, and by specifying factors moderating their effects. for practitioners, this study introduces influence processes as policy tools that managers can employ to motivate it acceptance within their organizations, benchmarks alternative influence strategies, and demonstrates the need for customizing influence strategies to the specific needs of a user population. abstract from author copyright of mis quarterly is the property of mis quarterly & the society for information management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. however, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. this abstract may be abridged. no warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (copyright applies to all abstracts.)”
Sher, P. J., & Lee, S.-H.. (2009). Consumer skepticism and online reviews: An Elaboration Likelihood Model perspective. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal
“Online consumers vary in their tendency to believe or disbelieve online reviews. based on an elaboration likelihood model (elm; petty & cacioppo, 1981, 1986), the present study tested the effects of consumer skepticism on online consumers. a total of 278 undergraduates expressed their attitudes about a product in an online experiment. two findings emerged from the results. first, highly skeptical consumers tend to base their attitudes on intrinsic beliefs instead of situational factors; that is, they are biased against certain types of information and indifferent to the message quality. second, consumers with low skepticism tend to adopt the peripheral route in forming attitude; that is, they are more persuaded by review quantity. these findings contribute to the elm research literature by considering a potentially important personality factor in the elm framework. managerial implications are suggested. [abstract from author]ncopyright of social behavior & personality: an international journal is the property of society for personality research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. however, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. this abstract may be abridged. no warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (copyright applies to all abstracts.)”
Cho, C. H.. (1999). How advertising works on the WWW: Modified elaboration likelihood model. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising
“This paper develops a model called modified elaboration likelihood model to understand how people process advertising on the internet. an empirical study verifies the new model by examining several variables influencing voluntary exposure or clicking of banner ads. these variables include (a) level of personal and product involvement, (b) the size of a banner ad, (c) relevancy between the content of a vehicle and the product category of a banner ad, (d) attitude toward the vehicle, and (e) overall attitude toward web advertising. the findings document significant relationships between these variables and clicking of banner ads and support the hypothesized model.”
Allison, T. H., Davis, B. C., Webb, J. W., & Short, J. C.. (2017). Persuasion in crowdfunding: An elaboration likelihood model of crowdfunding performance. Journal of Business Venturing
“This study draws upon the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (elm) to develop and test a model of persuasiveinfluence in crowdfunding. to test our hypothesized relationships, we drew upon a sample of 383 ventures taken directly from kickstarter, coupled with a decision experiment conducted in a simulated crowdfunding context. results suggest that issue-relevant information, such as entrepreneurs’ education, matters most when funders possess greater ability and motivation to make careful evaluations. in contrast, cues, such as adopting a group identity, have their strongest influence among inexperienced, first-time funders, and when requested funding amounts are smaller.”
Lien, N.-H.. (2001). Elaboration Likelihood Model in consumer research: A review. Proceedings of the National Science Council
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“The elm is a model of information processing and persuasion. ever since its introduction in the 1980’s, elm has been frequently cited by scholars from both cognitive/social psychology and consumer research. this paper reviews the application of elm to consumer research over the past decade, with the focus on studies conducted in advertising contexts, effects on brand evaluations, specification of processing mechanisms, and findings that seem to extend or contradict the model. a body of literature is discussed in three domains: antecedents, processes, and processing cues. a brief intepretation for the review and future directons for research are presented.”
Angst, & Agarwal. (2009). Adoption of Electronic Health Records in the Presence of Privacy Concerns: The Elaboration Likelihood Model and Individual Persuasion. MIS Quarterly
“Within the emerging context of the digitization of health care, electronic health records (ehrs) constitute a significant technological advance in the way medical information is stored, communicated, and processed by the multiple parties involved in health care delivery. however, in spite of the anticipated value potential of this technology, there is widespread concern that consumer privacy issues may impede its diffusion. in this study, we pose the question: can individuals be persuaded to change their attitudes and opt-in behavioral intentions toward ehrs, and allow their medical information to be digitized even in the presence of significant privacy concerns? to investigate this question, we integrate an individual’s concern for information privacy (cfip) with the elaboration likelihood model (elm) to examine attitude change and likelihood of opting-in to an ehr system. we theorize that issue involvement and argument framing interact to influence attitude change, and that concern for information privacy further moderates the effects of these variables. we also propose that likelihood of adoption is driven by concern for information privacy and attitude. we test our predictions using an experiment with 366 subjects where we manipulate the framing of the arguments supporting ehrs. we find that an individual’s cfip interacts with argument framing and issue involvement to affect attitudes toward the use of ehrs. in addition, results suggest that attitude toward ehr use and cfip directly influence opt-in behavioral intentions. an important finding for both theory and practice is that even when people have high concerns for privacy, their attitudes can be positively altered with appropriate message framing. these results as well as other theoretical and practical implications are discussed.”
Frewer, L. J., Howard, C., Hedderley, D., & Shepherd, R.. (1997). The elaboration likelihood model and communication about food risks. Risk Analysis
“Factors such as hazard type and source credibility have been identified as important in the establishment of effective strategies for risk communication. the elaboration likelihood model was adapted to investigate the potential impact of hazard type, information source, and persuasive content of information on individual engagement in elaborative, or thoughtful, cognitions about risk messages. one hundred sixty respondents were allocated to one of eight experimental groups, and the effects of source credibility, persuasive content of information and hazard type were systematically varied. the impact of the different factors on beliefs about the information and elaborative processing examined. low credibility was particularly important in reducing risk perceptions, although persuasive content and hazard type were also influential in determining whether elaborative processing occurred.”
Yang, S. F.. (2015). An eye-tracking study of the Elaboration Likelihood Model in online shopping. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications
“Abstract this study uses eye-tracking to explore the elaboration likelihood model (elm) in online shopping. the results show that the peripheral cue did not have moderating effect on purchase intention, but had moderating effect on eye movement. regarding purchase intention, the high elaboration had higher purchase intention than the low elaboration with a positive peripheral cue, but there was no difference in purchase intention between the high and low elaboration with a negative peripheral cue. regarding eye movement, with a positive peripheral cue, the high elaboration group was observed to have longer fixation duration than the low elaboration group in two areas of interest (aois); however, with a negative peripheral cue, the low elaboration group had longer fixation on the whole page and two aois. in addition, the relationship between purchase intention and eye movement of the aois is more significant in the high elaboration group when given a negative peripheral cue and in the low elaboration group when given a positive peripheral cue. this study not only examines the postulates of the elm, but also contributes to a better understanding of the cognitive processes of the elm. these findings have practical implications for e-sellers to identify characteristics of consumers’ elaboration in eye movement and designing customization and persuasivecontext for different elaboration groups in e-commerce.”
Petty, R. E., Brinol, P., & Priester, J. R.. (2002). Mass media attitude change: Implications of the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. . In Media effects: Advances in theory and research
“Undoubtedly, few social scientists today think that the mass media have the power to sway huge audiences to the extent once believed likely. nevertheless, the technological advances of the last century – from the first primitive radio broadcasts to today’s high speed mobile internet devices – have made it possible for individual communicators to have access to unprecendented numbers of potential message recipients, and recipients to a constant barrage of messages. millions of dollars are spent worldwide each year in attempts to change people’s attidudes about political candidates, consumer products, health and safety practices, and charitable causes. in most of these instances, the ultimate goal is to influence people’s behaviour so that they will vote for certain politicians or referenda, purchase specific goods, engage in safer driving, eating, and sexual activities, and donate money to various religious, environmental, and educational organizations and institutions. to what extent are media persuasion attempts effective?”
Morris, J. D., Woo, C., & Singh, A. J.. (2005). Elaboration likelihood model: A missing intrinsic emotional implication. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing
“The elaboration likelihood model (elm), developed by petty and cacioppo, proposed two routes to attitude change: central and peripheral. the central route emphasises a high relevance of the message to the individual. in the peripheral route, the individual concentrates on heuristic cues like attractive expert sources and number rather than the content of arguments employed by the message to process the message. if these cues produce an attitude change, this change is likely to be shorter lasting and unpredictable of that individual’s behaviour. hence, the cognitive (central) aspect of the elm overshadows its affective (peripheral) aspect, and the underlying suggestion of this model is that an attitude change is mostly reached through cognition as opposed to emotion. this study attempts to show that the emotional aspect is as important as the cognitive aspect. the basis for this conclusion is that even as an individual processes a message cognitively, that cognition has an emotional core. in addition, there is a possibility that content processing (elaboration) gives rise to emotions and that this leads to a longer-lasting change in attitudes.”
Bitner, M. J., & Obermiller, C.. (1985). THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL: LIMITATIONS AND EXTENSIONS IN MARKETING. Advances in Consumer Research
“The elaboration likelihood model (petty and cacioppo 1981) is discussed as a framework for understanding attitude formation and change with regard to products :ind services. the model has a number of limitations, some general and some specifically relevant to applica- tions in consumer behavior and marketing. these limita- tions are presented and discussed along with suggestions for research. despite its underspecification, the tnodel is seen as a useful framework and the authors propose a number of specific marketing modiatars of elaboration iikelihood. in marketing a great deal of attention has been focused on attitude formation, attitude change and attitude measurement with respect to products and services. since 1970, the literature reflects strong interest in the application and development of tnultiattribute atti- lude models (wilkie and pessemier 1973; lutz 1981). lndustry applications have also relied heavily on survey methodologies and multiattribute approaches to measure .ittitudes toward and preferences for products and servi- i:es. the multiattribute method assumes that consumers s.an and do base their choice decisions on beliefs about [iroduct/service attributes. marketing strategies evolving out of this approach to attitude formation fo- cus on analyzing and communicating information about important product/service attributes. at the same time there has been substantial research in marketing to suggest that there are external cues or in- lernal psychological processes quite separate from care- ful consideration of specific product/service attributes lhat may influence consumers’ attitudes. halo effect phenomena (beckwith and lehmann 1975; mitchell and olson 1981), attitude change via classical conditioning (gorn 1982), behavior modification (nord and peter 1980), mere fxposure effects (obermiller 1984), self-perception theory (reingen and kernan 1977), and the application of simple decision rules are examples of this view of atti- lude formation and change. marketing strategies evolv- ing out of this approach focus less on specific product/ service attributes and more on understanding the effects of contextual cues and heuristics on evaluation and de- cision making. these two approaches to attitude formation and change can be classified under what petty and cacioppo (1981; 1983) refer to in their elaboration likelihood model (elm) as central and peripheral routes to persuasion. the model proposes that neither route alone can account for th…”
Douglas, S. C., Kiewitz, C., Martinko, M. I., Harvey, P., Younhee, K. I. M., & Jae, U. C.. (2008). Cognitions, emotions, and evaluations: An elaboration likelihood model for workplace aggression. Academy of Management Review
“We present a model that captures processes leading to aggressive behaviors in the workplace. starting with trigger events, the model outlines the development of aggressive behaviors via three processing routes that vary in their level of deliberate, mindful processing. the model outlines how repeated exposure to trigger events can lead to the escalation of workplace aggression while also highlighting the moderating role of such factors as an individual’s level of self-control and attitude toward revenge. [abstract from author]”
Zhou, T.. (2017). Understanding location-based services users’ privacy concern: An elaboration likelihood model perspective. Internet Research
“Due to the high perceived risk, building users’ initial trust is crucial to facilitating their adoption and usage of mobile banking. drawing on the elaboration likelihood model (elm), this research examined users’ initial trust in mobile banking. the results indicated that initial trust develops along a dual route including the central route and peripheral route. self-efficacy as the elaboration likelihood moderates the effects of central cues and peripheral cues on initial trust. central cues include information quality and service quality, whereas peripheral cues include system quality, structural assurance and reputation. the results imply that service providers need to employ differentiated strategies to build users’ initial trust in mobile banking.”
Fan, Y., & Miao, Y.. (2012). Effect of Electronic Word-of-Mouth on Consumer Purchase Intention : The Perspective of Gender Differences. International Journal of Electronic Business Management
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“Electronic word of mouth is available to customers in different types of online consumer reviews, which can be used to help them make e-commerce purchasing decisions. customers acknowledge that online consumer reviews help them to determine ewom credibility and to make purchasing decisions. this study uses surveys and multiple regression analysis to create an extended elaboration likelihood model that describes the relationship between customer expertise, involvement, and rapport to acceptance and use of electronic word of mouth in making purchasing decisions. the study focuses on the cultural effects of gender on the extended elaboration likelihood model and purchasing decisions in e-commerce virtual communities. study results show that involvement has the most significant effect on perceived ewom credibility. study results show that perceived ewom credibility has a significant effect on ewom acceptance and intent to purchase. study results also show the male customers have different e-commerce shopping behaviors than female customers.”
Roberson, Q. M., Collins, C. J., & Oreg, S.. (2005). The effects of recruitment message specificity on applicant attraction to organizations. Journal of Business and Psychology
“We used the elaboration likelihood model (elm) from marketing research to explain and examine how recruitment message specificity influences job seeker attraction to organizations.”
Gregory, C. K., Meade, A. W., & Thompson, L. F.. (2013). Understanding internet recruitment via signaling theory and the elaboration likelihood model. Computers in Human Behavior
“In a series of experiments, we investigated the effect of race of source on persuasive communications in the elaboration likelihood model (r. e. petty & j. t. cacioppo, 1981, 1986). in exp 1, we found no evidence that white participants responded to a black source as a simple negative cue. exp 2 suggested the possibility that exposure to a black source led to low-involvement message processing. in exps 3 and 4, a distraction paradigm was used to test this possibility, and it was found that participants under low involvement were highly motivated to process a message presented by a black source. in exp 5, we found that attitudes toward the source’s ethnic group, rather than violations of expectancies, accounted for this processing effect. taken together, the results of these experiments are consistent with s. l. gaertner and j. f. dovidio’s (1986) theory of aversive racism, which suggests that whites, because of a combination of egalitarian values and underlying negative racial attitudes, are very concerned about not appearing unfavorable toward blacks, leading them to be highly motivated to process messages presented by a source from this group.”
Fallis, A. .. (2013). THE ROLE OF ARGUMENT QUALITY IN THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
“Examines the conceptualization and manipulation of the argument quality construct in the elaboration likelihood model (elm). development of a conceptual definition of argument quality; importance of elm to consumer research; components of elm.”
Zhou, T.. (2012). Understanding users’ initial trust in mobile banking: An elaboration likelihood perspective. Computers in Human Behavior
Walter Lippmann was an American writer, reporter, and political commentator famous for being among the first to introduce the concept of Cold War, coining the term “stereotype” in the modern psychological meaning, and critiquing media and democracy in his newspaper column and several books, most notably his 1922 book Public Opinion.More at Wikipedia
“That the manufacture of consent is capable of great refinements no one, I think, denies. The process by which public opinions arise is certainly no less intricate than it has appeared in these pages, and the opportunities for manipulation open to anyone who understands the process are plain enough. . . . [a]s a result of psychological research, coupled with the modern means of communication, the practice of democracy has turned a corner. A revolution is taking place, infinitely more significant than any shifting of economic power…. Under the impact of propaganda, not necessarily in the sinister meaning of the word alone, the old constants of our thinking have become variables. It is no longer possible, for example, to believe in the original dogma of democracy; that the knowledge needed for the management of human affairs comes up spontaneously from the human heart. Where we act on that theory we expose ourselves to self-deception, and to forms of persuasion that we cannot verify. It has been demonstrated that we cannot rely upon intuition, conscience, or the accidents of casual opinion if we are to deal with the world beyond our reach. … The public must be put in its place, so that each of us may live free of the trampling and roar of a bewildered herd.” (Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, Chapter XV)
Lippmann, W. (1920). Liberty and the News. Museum.
Lippmann, W. (1970). The Phantom Public. Politics.
Lippmann, W.. (1970). The Phantom Public. Politics
“In an era disgusted with politicians and the various instruments of ‘direct democracy,’ walter lippmann’s the phantom public remains as relevant as ever. it reveals lippmann at a time when he was most critical of the ills of american democracy. antipopulist in sentiment, this volume defends elitism as a serious and distinctive intellectual option, one with considerable precursors in the american past. lippmann’s demythologized view of the american system of government resonates today. the phantom public discusses the ‘disenchanted man’ who has become disillusioned not only with democracy, but also with reform. according to lippmann, the average voter is incapable of governance; what is called the public is merely a ‘phantom.’ in terms of policy-making, the distinction should not be experts versus amateurs, but insiders versus outsiders. lippmann challenges the core assumption of progressive politics as well as any theory that pretends to leave political decision making in the hands of the people as a whole. in his biography walter lippmann and the american century, ronald steel praised the phantom public as ‘one of lippmann’s most powerfully argued and revealing books. in it he came fully to terms with the inadequacy of traditional democratic theory.’ this volume is part of a continuing series on the major works of walter lippmann. as more and more americans are inclined to become apathetic to the political system, this classic will be essential reading for students, teachers, and researchers of political science and history.”
Schudson, M.. (2008). The “Lippmann-Dewey Debate” and the Invention of Walter Lippmann as an Anti-Democrat 1986–1996. International Journal of Communication
“The ‘lippmann-dewey debate’ became widely discussed in the 1980s and 1990s in u.s. media and communication studies, in large part through the influence of james carey. while carey’s initial writing on the lippmann-dewey exchange was insightful, by 1987, his characterization of the exchange seriously misread lippmann, and misdirected subsequent discussion. comparing carey’s remarks about lippmann, and similar remarks from other leading scholars influenced by carey’s reading, with what lippmann actually said, reveals that lippmann’s elitism did not make him anti-democratic but, instead, a subtle thinker concerned with how to integrate expertise into a functioning democracy. this article speculates why carey misinterpreted lippmann’s work, and concludes with what remains relevant in carey’s argument.”
Obar, J. A.. (2013). Big Data and The Phantom Public: Walter Lippmann and the Fallacy of Data Privacy Self-Management. SSRN
“In 1927, walter lippmann published the phantom public, arguing for what he referred to as the fallacy of democracy. he wrote, ‘i have not happened to meet anybody, from a president of the united states to a professor of political science, who came anywhere near to embodying the accepted ideal of the sovereign and omnicompetent citizen’ (lippmann, 1927, 11). repurposing lippmann, this paper argues that recent calls for individuals to have control over their big data by the federal trade commission, the white house and the u.s. congress present a comparable fallacy of data privacy self-management. had we the faculties and the system for self-management, the digital citizen has little time for data governance. this challenge should be seen as an extension of a longstanding self-governance debate, exemplified by the works of john dewey and walter lippmann. both framed their arguments in opposition to a system struggling to find an autonomous and efficacious role for the citizen. in the current context, lippmann’s pragmatism does more to champion citizen empowerment than dewey’s call for direct participation, by calling attention to the impracticality of data privacy self-management. if it is true that the fallacy of democracy is similar to the fallacy of data privacy self-management, then perhaps the pragmatic solution is representative data management; a combination of non/for-profit digital dossier management via infomediaries that can ensure the protection of personal data, while freeing individuals from what lippmann referred to as an ‘unattainable ideal.’”
Bybee, C.. (1999). Can Democracy Survive in the Post-Factual Age?: A Return to the Lippmann-Dewey Debate about the Politics of News. Journalism and Communication Monographs
“The political coverage of news is examined by focusing on a debate between social commentator and journalist walter lippmann and philosopher john dewey. the conflicts between scientism, news and democracy that dewey began to reveal have not gone away, but only continue to resurface in different forms.”
Lippmann, W.. (1987). The Cold War. Foreign Affairs
“BACKGROUND: heavy alcohol use as well as alcohol dependence (ad) have been associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (hpa)-axis and the autonomic nervous system (ans). however, the relative contribution of alcohol use and ad is unclear. methods: baseline data were derived from 2947 persons of the netherlands study of depression and anxiety (nesda), including non-drinkers (n=498), moderate drinkers (n=2112) and heavy drinkers (n=337). we also distinguished between persons with no lifetime dsm-iv ad (n=2496), remitted ad (> 1 year; n = 243), and current ad (</= 1 year; n=208). ans measures included ecg-based heart rate (hr), respiratory sinus arrhythmia (rsa, high rsa reflecting high cardiac parasympathetic control) and pre-ejection period (pep, high pep reflecting low cardiac sympathetic control). hpa-axis measures included the cortisol awakening response (area under the curve with respect to the ground [aucg] and increase [auci]), evening cortisol and a 0.5mg dexamethasone suppression test, all measured in saliva. results: heavy drinkers showed higher basal cortisol levels (aucg: p=.02; evening cortisol: p=.006) and increased cardiac sympathetic control (higher hr: p=.04; lower pep: p=.04) compared to moderate drinkers. persons with current or remitted ad did not differ from persons without lifetime ad on any of the hpa-axis or ans indicators (all p>.33). similar patterns of hpa-axis and ans activity across alcohol use groups were found in persons with and without lifetime ad. conclusions: our findings suggest that current heavy alcohol use, rather than current or remitted ad, is associated with hyperactivity of the hpa-axis and increased cardiac sympathetic control”
Lippmann, W.. (1955). Essays in the Public Philosophy. Mentor books
“Publisher’s description: freedom demands responsibility. in this cogent, penetrating analysis of the changing state of western democracies, walter lippmann, dean of political news columnists, presents a lucid, balanced summary of the crucial decisions facing every thoughtful 20th century citizen. he urges free men everywhere to take a lively, responsible interest in their government in order to preserve their liberties and defend themselves against totalitarianism.”
Lippmann, W.. (1920). Liberty and the News. Museum
“Predicting the binding mode of flexible polypeptides to proteins is an important task that falls outside the domain of applicability of most small molecule and protein−protein docking tools. here, we test the small molecule flexible ligand docking program glide on a set of 19 non-α-helical peptides and systematically improve pose prediction accuracy by enhancing glide sampling for flexible polypeptides. in addition, scoring of the poses was improved by post-processing with physics-based implicit solvent mm- gbsa calculations. using the best rmsd among the top 10 scoring poses as a metric, the success rate (rmsd ≤ 2.0 å for the interface backbone atoms) increased from 21% with default glide sp settings to 58% with the enhanced peptide sampling and scoring protocol in the case of redocking to the native protein structure. this approaches the accuracy of the recently developed rosetta flexpepdock method (63% success for these 19 peptides) while being over 100 times faster. cross-docking was performed for a subset of cases where an unbound receptor structure was available, and in that case, 40% of peptides were docked successfully. we analyze the results and find that the optimized polypeptide protocol is most accurate for extended peptides of limited size and number of formal charges, defining a domain of applicability for this approach.”
Newman, L. S.. (2009). WAS WALTER LIPPMANN INTERESTED IN STEREOTYPING?: Public Opinion and Cognitive Social Psychology. History of Psychology
“Walter lippmann’s public opinion is much cited but little read. a review of references to public opinion by social psychologists over the last 20 years reveals the widespread beliefs that (1) the book focuses primarily on group stereotypes and prejudice, and (2) the concept of stereotyping originated with lippmann. however, stereotypes, as currently conceived–as opposed to schemata more generally–do not play a central role in the book, and lippmann did not introduce the concept (although he may have broadened it). in addition, throughout his long and distinguished career, he showed little interest in stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. nonetheless, public opinion is a seminal work in the area of cognitive social psychology and (like other little read citation classics) still deserves to be read-including, ironically, by students of stereotyping and prejudice.”
“A seminal work on how public opinion is created and shaped, edward bernays’s 1923 classic crystallizing public opinion set down the principles that corporations and government have used to influence public attitudes over the past century.a primer on the then new profession of ‘public relations counsel,’ crystallizing elucidates the ‘instruments and techniques’ that pr professionals use to mold public opinion on behalf of their client’s interests. by adapting the ideas that bernays put forth in this book, governments and advertisers have been able to ‘regiment the mind like the military regiments the body.’the first ever book ever written about the public relations industry, this all-new edition of crystallizing public opinion features an introduction by stuart ewen, author of pr! a social history of spin, all consuming images: on the politics of style in contemporary culture, and captains of consciousness: advertising and the social roots of the consumer culture.”
Bernays, E. L.. (1947). The Engineering of Consent. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
“FREEDOM of speech and its democratic corollary, a free press, have tacitly expanded our bill of rights to include the right of persuasion. this development was an inevitable result of the expansion of the media of free speech and persuasion, denned in other articles in this volume. all these media provide open doors to the public mind. any one of us through these media may influence the attitudes and actions of our fellow citizens. the tremendous expansion of communications in the united states has given this nation the world’s most penetrating and effective apparatus for the transmission of ideas. every resident is constantly exposed to the impact of our vast network of communications which reach every corner of the country, no matter how remote or isolated. words hammer continually at the eyes and ears of america. the united states has become a small room in which a single whisper is magnified thousands of times. knowledge of how to use this enormous amplifying system becomes a matter of primary concern to those who are interested in socially constructive action. there are two main divisions of this communications system which maintain social cohesion. on the first level there are the commercial media. almost 1,800 daily newspapers in the united states have a combined circulation of around 44,000,000. there are approximately 10,000 weekly newspapers and almost 6,000 magazines. approximately 2,000 radio stations of various types broadcast to the nation’s 60,000,000 receiving sets. approximately 16,500 motion picture houses have a capacity of almost 10,500,000. a deluge of books and pamphlets is published annually. the country is blanketed with billboards, handbills, throwaways, and direct mail advertising. round tables, panels and forums, classrooms and legislative assemblies, and public platforms—any and all media, day after day, spread the word, someone’s word. on the second level there are the specialized media owned and operated by the many organized groups in this country. almost all such groups (and many of their subdivisions) have their own communications systems. they disseminate ideas not only by means of the formal written word in labor papers, house organs, special bulletins, and the like, but also through lectures, meetings, discussions, and rank-and-file conversations.”
Jansen, S. C.. (2013). Semantic Tyranny: How Edward L. Bernays Stole Walter Lippmann’s Mojo and Got Away With It and Why It Still Matters. International Journal of Communication
“The history of public relations has recently attracted the interest of critical media scholars. edward l. bernays, the author of several pioneering pr books, has profoundly influenced how critical scholars have conceived of public relations. bernays deceptively claimed that walter lippmann provided the theory and that he provided the practice, creating the false impression that lippmann was an apologist for pr. lippmann actually denounced government and corporate publicity agents as propagandists and censors. yet critical pr scholarship has uncritically accepted and amplified bernays’ misrepresentation. this article seeks to correct this error by comparing the key texts: lippmann’s public opinion (1922) and bernays’ crystallizing public opinion (1923).”
Hogan, J. M., & Cutlip, S. M.. (1996). The Unseen Power: Public Relations; A History.. The American Historical Review
“Pt. i. the seedbed years of counseling, 1900-1919. 1. the nation’s first publicity agency. 2. the first washington agencies. 3. first parker and lee, then lee, harris, and lee. 4. the hamilton wright organization — the first international agency. 5. pendleton dudley starts fifth agency in 1909 — pt. ii. public relations booms in the booming twenties, 1919-1930. 6. ivy lee returns to new york; joined by t.j. ross. 7. edward l. bernays: pioneer, philosopher, centenarian. 8. bernays: the counselor and his genius and his role in the profession. 9. john price jones tries to ride two horses. 10. steve hannagan: super press agent. 11. harry bruno: aviation and public relations pioneer. 12. william h. baldwin: counselor and citizen. 13. ben sonnenberg: sui generis. 14. clarke and tyler: builders of the ku klux klan. 15. john w. hill: builder of an enduring legacy. 16. john hill’s two major battles: steel and tobacco — and the person — pt. iii. the depression and the years beyond.”
L’Etang, J.. (1999). The father of spin: Edward L. Bernays and the birth of public relations. Public Relations Review
“The father of spin is the first full-length biography of the legendary edward l. bernays, who, beginning in the 1920s, was one of the first and most successful practitioners of the art of public relations. this book tells of bernays’s great campaigns, including:. his precedent-setting work for the american tobacco company, climaxed by a parade of cigarette-smoking debutantes down fifth avenue on easter sunday that recast smoking as an act of liberation for women, helped convince a generation of women to light up, and made headlines from coast to coast. he transformed the color green into an american favorite to blend in with the green of the lucky strike package, and he convinced weight-conscious women that a cigarette was just the thing to substitute for a sweet. and he did it all without anyone knowing his client was behind it. how he and his client the united fruit company helped engineer the overthrow of the socialist regime in guatemala in the 195os. how he borrowed ideas from his uncle sigmund freud to push people to buy products they didn’t need and to shape the way they perceived issues and the very way they believed. and what bernays did for tobacco and fruit peddlers, he also did for politicians, including calvin coolidge and herbert hoover.”
Bernays, E. L.. (1928). Manipulating Public Opinion: The Why and The How. American Journal of Sociology
“Public opinion, narrowly defined, is the thought of a society at a given time to-ward a given object; broadly conceived, it is the power of the group to sway the larger public in its attitude. public opinion can be manipulated, but in teaching the public how to ask for what it wants the manipulator is safeguarding the public against his own possible aggressiveness. the method of the experimental psycholo-gist is not as effective in the study of public opinion in the broad sense as is that of introspective psychology. to create and to change public opinion it-is necessary to understand human motives, to know what special interests are represented by a given population, and to realize the function and limitations of the physical organs of ap-proach to the public, such as the radio, the platform, the movie, the letter, the news-paper, etc. if the general principles of swaying public opinion are understood, a technique can be developed which, with the correct appraisal of the specific problem and the specific audience, can and has been used effectively in such widely different situations as changing the attitude of whites toward negroes in america, changing the buying habits of american women from felt hats to velvet, silk, and straw hats,”
Bernays, E. L.. (1935). Molding Public Opinion. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
“ Bernays, an early pioneer of public relations and a nephew by marriage to sigmund freud, discusses his ideas about using modern media to influence public opinion.”
García, C.. (2015). Searching for Benedict de Spinoza in the history of communication: His influence on Walter Lippmann and Edward Bernays. Public Relations Review
“Some ideas crucial for the development of communication as a field are both contemporary and also based on classical philosophical thinking. an example of this is philosopher benedict of spinoza’s ideas on the power of images and the importance of emotions to explain human behavior. this article delves into how spinoza’s ideas have been transmitted to classic public relations authors such as walter lippmann and edward bernays through the works of their masters and their mentors: george santayana, who was one of lippmann’s philosophy professors at harvard, and sigmund freud, an uncle of bernays whose psychoanalysis theory shaped bernays’ approach to persuasion. in contrast to these public relations masters of persuasion who had a pessimistic view of the human condition, spinoza’s ethics is based on a positive anthropology of man that squares well with contemporary and more ethical relationship-building approaches to public relations.”
Bernays, E. L.. (1942). The Marketing of National Policies: A Study of War Propaganda. Journal of Marketing
“During the great war, the nations realized the necessity of selling their national aims and policies. they had special marketing problems. the attitudes and actions of their own people, of neutrals and of enemies towards them, depended to a great extent on how effectively they ‘sold’ themselves.”
Bernays, E. L.. (1971). Emergence of the Public Relations Counsel: Principles and Recollections. Business History Review
“Edward l. bernays was a pioneer in the development of public relations in modern america. for more than half a century he has advised a wide range of institutions, including government, corporations, trade associations, and many private organizations. in this memoir he gives his views of the proper role, methods, and principles of public relations and recalls some of his early experiences with businessmen and other clients.”
Alarcón Coka, D.. (2012). Edward Bernays, psicología de Sigmund Freud aplicada a la mente del consumidor. Biblioteca Repositrio Universal
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“Edward louis bernays nació el 22 de noviembre de 1891, en vienna, austria y muere el 9 de marzo de 1995, en massachusets, eeuu. ya que nació en una familia judía bernays vivió a partir de su primer año de vida en nueva york, eeuu. su padre era un comerciante exitoso y su madre era anna freud, hermana de sigmund freud. una vez graduado del colegio, bernays entró a la universidad de cornell donde obtuvo su título en agricultura, en 1912. aunque él estudió agricultura solo para complacer a su padre, bernays tenía una pasión que difiere con el tema.”
Fröhlich, R.. (2015). Zur Problematik der PR-Definition(en). In Handbuch der Public Relations
“Der begriff › public relations ‹ (pr) wurde wohl 1882 zum ersten mal verwendet (vgl. z. b. grunig & hunt 1984: 14). der amerikanische pr-pionier edward l. bernays hat ihn wesentlich verbreitet und › gesellschaftsfähig ‹ gemacht. in deutschland beanspruchte albert oeckl öffentlich für sich, die übersetzung › öffentlichkeitsarbeit ‹ (öa) für den amerikanischen begriff › public relations ‹ in deutschland eingeführt zu haben, was mittlerweile aber als widerlegt gilt: der deutsche begriff › öffentlichkeitsarbeit ‹ wurde spätestens 1917 von august hinderer und ferdinand katsch im kontext der damaligen diskussion der evangelischen pressverbände durchaus im sinne des heutigen verständnisses einschlägig gebraucht (liebert 2003).”
Bernays, E. L.. (1975). Social responsibility of business. Public Relations Review
“Predicting the binding mode of flexible polypeptides to proteins is an important task that falls outside the domain of applicability of most small molecule and protein−protein docking tools. here, we test the small molecule flexible ligand docking program glide on a set of 19 non-α-helical peptides and systematically improve pose prediction accuracy by enhancing glide sampling for flexible polypeptides. in addition, scoring of the poses was improved by post-processing with physics-based implicit solvent mm- gbsa calculations. using the best rmsd among the top 10 scoring poses as a metric, the success rate (rmsd ≤ 2.0 å for the interface backbone atoms) increased from 21% with default glide sp settings to 58% with the enhanced peptide sampling and scoring protocol in the case of redocking to the native protein structure. this approaches the accuracy of the recently developed rosetta flexpepdock method (63% success for these 19 peptides) while being over 100 times faster. cross-docking was performed for a subset of cases where an unbound receptor structure was available, and in that case, 40% of peptides were docked successfully. we analyze the results and find that the optimized polypeptide protocol is most accurate for extended peptides of limited size and number of formal charges, defining a domain of applicability for this approach.”
Justman, S.. (1994). Freud and His Nephew. Social Research
“The article examines the attitudes of sigmund freud and his nephew edward bernays toward the miseries of civilization. like freud’s challenge to religion, bernays’s aim of engineering social harmony derived from the enlightenment, and so it was, perhaps, that he saw himself as a co-worker with his uncle in the project of emancipation. bernay’s efforts were a determined imitation of freud. in old age, bernays’s constant complaint was the cheapening of his thought by newcomers who cared nothing for his deeper concerns, never did he realize that he stood in approximately that relation to freud.”
Murphree, V.. (2015). Edward Bernays’s 1929 “Torches of Freedom” march: Myths and historical significance. American Journalism
“Edward bernayss 1929 torches of freedom march has long been considered a textbook example of the effectiveness of a pseudo-event and media manipulation to advance a cause. however, an examination of news media coverage shows that that although descriptions of the event as being carefully staged are accurate, the idea that the news media fell for the event in a significant way is a bernays-driven myth. this article argues that although there was indeed significant coverage, it was not nearly as celebratory as bernays claimed. moreover, the coverage indicates that the impact of the event was likely never as extensive or persuasive as bernays and some have suggested.”
García, C., Roosevelt, T., Wilson, W., & Kennedy, J. F.. (2010). Rethinking Walter Lippmann ’ s legacy in the history of public relations. PRism
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“This paper argues that walter lippmann’s contribution to the field of public relations has tended to be overlooked because, unlike often-cited figures such as ivy lee and edward bernays, he did not implement public relations campaigns. however, an analysis of lippmann’s political theory reveals that his view of society emphasised the importance of communication management by government. indeed, lippmann provided a rationale that shaped the development of public relations practice in the life of organisations as a hegemonic practice to control publics. moreover, this public relations perspective transferred to the broader communication field as lippmann’s paradigm for the study of communication was adopted. this paper looks at how lippmann’s political ideas framed and guided the development of the public relations profession and its influence beyond its own field.”
Rodgers, R. R.. (2010). The press and public relations through the lens of the periodicals, 1890-1930. Public Relations Review
“This paper explores and analyzes the intellectual debate and discussion about the slow reveal of public relations and both the perceived threat to journalism and the corruption of public opinion in american life as it appeared in the periodicals in the early twentieth century. despite edward l. bernays complaint that a ‘conspiracy of silence’ prevailed in the mass media about the growing field of public relations prior to 1930, this review found more than a hundred essays and articles about public relations. the topics ran the gamut from historical explanations and explorations of what were essentially the early beginnings of our contemporary information society to discussions, debates, and warnings about the ramifications of public relations in the commercial, governmental, political, and social areas of life. ?? 2009 elsevier inc. all rights reserved.”
Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media is a book written by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, in which the authors propose that the mass communication media of the U.S. “are effective and powerful ideological institutions that carry out a system-supportive propaganda function, by reliance on market forces, internalized assumptions, and self-censorship, and without overt coercion”, by means of the propaganda model of communication.[1] The title derives from the phrase “the manufacture of consent,” employed in the book Public Opinion (1922), by Walter Lippmann (1889–1974).[2]
The book was first published in 1988 and was revised 20 years later to take account of developments such as the fall of the Soviet Union. There has been debate about how the internet has changed the public´s access to information since 1988.