Praxeology: A holistic approach to human behaviour

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In philosophy, praxeology or praxiology (/ˌpræksiˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek πρᾶξις (praxis) ‘deed, action’, and -λογία (-logia) ‘study of’) is the theory of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior, contrary to reflexive behavior and other unintentional behavior.

French social philosopher Alfred Espinas gave the term its modern meaning, and praxeology was developed independently by two principal groups: the Austrian school, led by Ludwig von Mises, and the Polish school, led by Tadeusz Kotarbiński.

Origin and etymology

Coinage of the word praxeology (praxéologie) is often credited to Louis Bourdeau, the French author of a classification of the sciences, which he published in his Théorie des sciences: Plan de Science intégrale in 1882:

On account of their dual natures of specialty and generality, these functions should be the subject of a separate science. Some of its parts have been studied for a long time, because this kind of research, in which man could be the main subject, has always presented the greatest interest. Physiology, hygiene, medicine, psychology, animal history, human history, political economy, morality, etc. represent fragments of a science that we would like to establish, but as fragments scattered and uncoordinated have remained until now only parts of particular sciences. They should be joined together and made whole in order to highlight the order of the whole and its unity. Now you have a science, so far unnamed, which we propose to call Praxeology (from πραξις, action), or by referring to the influence of the environment, Mesology (from μεσος, environment).

However, the term was used at least once previously (with a slight spelling difference), in 1608, by Clemens Timpler in his Philosophiae practicae systema methodicum:

There was Aretology: Following that Praxiology: which is the second part of the Ethics, in general, commenting on the actions of the moral virtues.

It was later mentioned by Robert Flint in 1904 in a review of Bourdeau’s Théorie des sciences.

The modern definition of the word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas (1844–1922), the French philosopher and sociologist; he was the forerunner of the Polish school of the science of efficient action. The Austrian school of economics was based on a philosophical science of the same kind.

With a different spelling, the word was used by the English psychologist Charles Arthur Mercier (in 1911), and proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as a better name for his behaviorism. Watson rejected it. But the Chinese physiologist of behavior, Zing-Yang Kuo (b. 1898) adopted the term in 1935. It was also used by William McDougall (in 1928 and later).

Previously the word praxiology, with the meaning Espinas gave to it, was used by Tadeusz Kotarbiński (in 1923). Several economists, such as the Ukrainian, Eugene Slutsky (1926) used it in his attempt to base economics on a theory of action. It was also used by Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises (1933), Russian Marxist Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938) during the Second International Congress of History of Science and Technology in London (in 1931), and Polish scholar Oscar Lange (1904–1965) in 1959, and later.

The Italian philosopher, Carmelo Ottaviano, was using the Italianised version, prassiologia, in his treatises starting from 1935, but in his own way, as a theory of politics. After the Second World War the use of the term praxeology spread widely. After the emigration of Mises to the US his pupil Murray Rothbard defended the praxeological approach. A revival of Espinas’s approach in France was revealed in the works of Pierre Massé (1946), the eminent cybernetician, Georges Théodule Guilbaud (1953), the Belgian logician, Leo Apostel (1957), the cybernetician, Anatol Rapoport (1962), Henry Pierron, psychologist and lexicographer (1957), François Perroux, economist (1957), the social psychologist, Robert Daval (1963), the well-known sociologist, Raymond Aron (1963) and the methodologists, Abraham Antoine Moles and Roland Caude (1965).

Under the influence of Tadeusz Kotarbiński, praxeology flourished in Poland. A special “Centre of Praxeology” (Zaklad Prakseologiczny) was created under the organizational guidance of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with its own periodical (from 1962), called at first Materiały Prakseologiczne (Praxeological Papers), and then abbreviated to Prakseologia. It published hundreds of papers by different authors, and the materials for a special vocabulary edited by Professor Tadeusz Pszczolowski, the leading praxeologist of the younger generation. A sweeping survey of the praxeological approach is to be found in the paper by the French statistician Micheline Petruszewycz, “A propos de la praxéologie”.

Ludwig von Mises was influenced by several theories in forming his work on praxeology, including Immanuel Kant’s works, Max Weber’s work on methodological individualism, and Carl Menger’s development of the subjective theory of value.

Philosopher of science Mario Bunge published works of systematic philosophy that included contributions to praxeology, and Bunge dismissed von Mises’s version of praxeology as “nothing but the principle of maximization of subjective utility—a fancy version of egoism”. Bunge, who was also a fierce critic of pseudoscience, warned that when “conceived in extremely general terms and detached from both ethics and science, praxiology has hardly any practical value”.

Austrian economics in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises relies heavily on praxeology in the development of its economic theories. Mises considered economics to be a sub-discipline of praxeology. Austrian School economists, following Mises, use praxeology and deduction, rather than empirical studies, to determine economic principles. According to these theorists, with the action axiom as the starting point, it is possible to draw conclusions about human behavior that are both objective and universal. For example, the notion that humans engage in acts of choice implies that they have preferences, and this must be true for anyone who exhibits intentional behavior.

Advocates of praxeology also say that it provides insights for the field of ethics.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxeology

Albert Pike’s vision of three world wars (1871)

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Pike

“The First World War must be brought about in order to permit the Illuminati to overthrow the power of the Czars in Russia and of making that country a fortress of atheistic Communism. The divergences caused by the “agentur” (agents) of the Illuminati between the British and Germanic Empires will be used to foment this war. At the end of the war, Communism will be built and used in order to destroy the other governments and in order to weaken the religions.”

 

“The Second World War must be fomented by taking advantage of the differences between the Fascists and the political Zionists. This war must be brought about so that Nazism is destroyed and that the political Zionism be strong enough to institute a sovereign state of Israel in Palestine. During the Second World War, International Communism must become strong enough in order to balance Christendom, which would be then restrained and held in check until the time when we would need it for the final social cataclysm.”

 

“The Third World War must be fomented by taking advantage of the differences caused by the “agentur” of the “Illuminati” between the political Zionists and the leaders of Islamic World. The war must be conducted in such a way that Islam (the Moslem Arabic World) and political Zionism (the State of Israel) mutually destroy each other. Meanwhile the other nations, once more divided on this issue will be constrained to fight to the point of complete physical, moral, spiritual and economical exhaustion…We shall unleash the Nihilists and the atheists, and we shall provoke a formidable social cataclysm which in all its horror will show clearly to the nations the effect of absolute atheism, origin of savagery and of the most bloody turmoil. Then everywhere, the citizens, obliged to defend themselves against the world minority of revolutionaries, will exterminate those destroyers of civilization, and the multitude, disillusioned with Christianity, whose deistic spirits will from that moment be without compass or direction, anxious for an ideal, but without knowing where to render its adoration, will receive the true light through the universal manifestation of the pure doctrine of Lucifer, brought finally out in the public view. This manifestation will result from the general reactionary movement which will follow the destruction of Christianity and atheism, both conquered and exterminated at the same time.”

Hail Hydra (Hydra vulgaris)

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“As far as we can tell, it doesn’t age or die,” says Assistant Professor Celina Juliano, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology. “You can cut little pieces out of the animal and it will regrow and maybe the most amazing thing is that you can dissociate the animal into single cells, mix them all up, put them back in a ball and a new Hydra will just grow out of it.”

biology.ucdavis.edu/research/model-organisms/hydra

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(comics)

Abuse of authority by the UN: Sexual exploitation and abuse of children covered up

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In reviewing the UN’s response to the Allegations on the ground, the Panel finds that the head of HRJS and the SRSG of MINUSCA both committed an abuse of authority. As head of the mission and the most senior UN official in CAR, the SRSG of MINUSCA was the person most able to intervene with officials to hold the perpetrators accountable and to stop the abuses from reoccurring. Yet despite being made aware of the Allegations on a number of occasions, he took no steps to ensure that follow up occurred. The security situation in CAR and the absence of clear guidelines with respect to non-UN command troops provide some context to the SRSG’s conduct. However, they do not justify his persistent failure to take action in the face of the seriousness of the Allegations. Rather, his failure to take steps to prevent the sexual abuse of children or to ensure the accountability of the perpetrators was a total abdication of his responsibility to uphold human rights in the implementation of MINUSCA’s mandate. Similarly, the actions of the head of HRJS show an outright disregard for his obligations as head of the human rights component of the UN mission in CAR. For example, he neither considered that protection of the children at risk was his responsibility nor acknowledged that the Allegations brought to light what could potentially be systematic violations which required urgent action to halt further abuse, identify the perpetrators, and ensure that they were held accountable. He also failed to follow up with other children who were allegedly abused. Instead, he appears to have been preoccupied by the political sensitivity of the Allegations.
Taking Action on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by Peacekeepers

Humes’ is-ought problem

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The is–ought problem, as articulated by the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume, arises when one makes claims about what ought to be that are based solely on statements about what is. Hume found that there seems to be a significant difference between descriptive or positive statements (about what is) and prescriptive or normative statements (about what ought to be), and that it is not obvious how one can coherently move from descriptive statements to prescriptive ones. Hume’s law or Hume’s guillotine, is the thesis that, if a reasoner only has access to non-moral and non-evaluative factual premises, the reasoner cannot logically infer the truth of moral statements.

A similar view is defended by G. E. Moore‘s open-question argument, intended to refute any identification of moral properties with natural properties. This so-called naturalistic fallacy stands in contrast to the views of ethical naturalists.

The is–ought problem is closely related to the fact–value distinction in epistemology.


Further References

Mooya, M.. (2022). Hume’s guillotine – the ‘is-ought’ problem in property valuation theory. Journal of Property Research

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/09599916.2021.1918222
DOI URL
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Spielthenner, G.. (2017). The Is-Ought Problem in Practical Ethics. HEC Forum

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10730-016-9318-8
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Hapla, M.. (2020). Justification of human rights and is-ought problem. Casopis pro Pravni Vedu a Praxi

Plain numerical DOI: 10.5817/CPVP2020-1-3
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Pigden, C.. (2001). The Is-Ought Problem: An Investigation in Philosophical Logic. Australasian Journal of Philosophy

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/713659291
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Iwasa, N.. (2011). Sentimentalism and the is-ought problem. Croatian Journal of Philosophy
de Vries, R.. (2011). The Uses and Abuses of Moral Theory in Bioethics. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10677-011-9290-y
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Sisk, B. A., Mozersky, J., Antes, A. L., & DuBois, J. M.. (2020). The “Ought-Is” Problem: An Implementation Science Framework for Translating Ethical Norms Into Practice. American Journal of Bioethics

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2020.1730483
DOI URL
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Hormesis in toxicology

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Hormesis is a characteristic of many biological processes, namely a biphasic or triphasic response to exposure to increasing amounts of a substance or condition. Within the hormetic zone, the biological response to low exposures to toxins and other stressors is generally favorable. The term “hormesis” comes from Greek hórmēsis “rapid motion, eagerness”, itself from ancient Greek hormáein “to set in motion, impel, urge on”, the same Greek root as the word hormone. The term ‘hormetics’ has been proposed for the study and science of hormesis.

In toxicology, hormesis is a dose response phenomenon to xenobiotics or other stressors characterized by a low-dose stimulation, with zero dose and high-dose inhibition, thus resulting in a J-shaped or an inverted U-shaped dose response (e.g. the arms of the “U” are inhibitory or toxic concentrations whereas the curve region stimulates a beneficial response.) Generally speaking, hormesis pertains to the study of benefits of exposure to toxins such as radiation or mercury (perhaps analogous to health paradoxes such as the smoker’s paradox, although differing by virtue of dose-dependent effects). Microdosing, and to some extent homeopathy, are often regarded as applications of hormesis.

In physiology and nutrition, hormesis can be visualized as a hormetic curve with regions of deficiency, homeostasis, and toxicity. Physiological concentrations deviating above or below homeostasis concentrations adversely affects an organism, thus in this context, the hormetic zone is synonymously known as the region of homeostasis. In pharmacology the hormetic zone is similar to the therapeutic window. Some psychological or environmental factors that would seem to produce positive responses have also been termed “eustress”.

In the context of toxicology, the hormesis model of dose response is vigorously debated.The biochemical mechanisms by which hormesis works (particularly in applied cases pertaining to behavior and toxins) remain under early laboratory research and are not well understood. The notion that hormesis is an important policy factor for chemical risk regulations is not widely accepted.

Further References

Calabrese, E. J., & Baldwin, L. A.. (2002). Defining hormesis. Human and Experimental Toxicology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1191/0960327102ht217oa
DOI URL
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Mattson, M. P.. (2008). Hormesis defined. Ageing Research Reviews

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2007.08.007
DOI URL
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Ullman, D.. (2021). Exploring Possible Mechanisms of Hormesis and Homeopathy in the Light of Nanopharmacology and Ultra-High Dilutions. Dose-Response

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1177/15593258211022983
DOI URL
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Calabrese, E. J.. (2014). Hormesis: A fundamental concept in biology. Microbial Cell

Plain numerical DOI: 10.15698/mic2014.05.145
DOI URL
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Calabrese, E. J.. (2020). Hormesis and ginseng: Ginseng mixtures and individual constituents commonly display hormesis dose responses, especially for neuroprotective effects. Molecules

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112719
DOI URL
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Mcclure, C. D., Zhong, W., Hunt, V. L., Chapman, F. M., Hill, F. V., & Priest, N. K.. (2014). Hormesis results in trade-offs with immunity. Evolution

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/evo.12453
DOI URL
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Zimmermann, A., Bauer, M. A., Kroemer, G., Madeo, F., & Carmona-Gutierrez, D.. (2014). When less is more: Hormesis against stress and disease. Microbial Cell

Plain numerical DOI: 10.15698/mic2014.05.148
DOI URL
directSciHub download

Calabrese, E. J., & Mattson, M. P.. (2017). How does hormesis impact biology, toxicology, and medicine?. Npj Aging and Mechanisms of Disease

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/s41514-017-0013-z
DOI URL
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Calabrese, E. J.. (2018). Hormesis: Path and progression to significance. International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3390/ijms19102871
DOI URL
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Brain Science from Bench to Battlefield: The Realities – and Risks – of Neuroweapons | CGSR Seminar

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Dr. James Giordano: clinicalbioethics.georgetown.edu/jgiordano/
Animated version: cognitive-liberty.online/the-matrix-agent-smith-and-dual-use-neuroscience/

James Giordano, PhD, MPhil, is Chief of the Neuroethics Studies Program, Scholar-in-Residence, leads the Sub-Program in Military Medical Ethics, and Co-director of the O’Neill-Pellegrino Program in Brain Science and Global Health Law and Policy in the Pellegrino Center for Clinical Bioethics; and is Professor in the Departments of Neurology and Biochemistry at Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA. He is also Distinguished Visiting Professor of Brain Science, Health Promotions and Ethics at the Coburg University of Applied Sciences, Coburg, Germany, and was formerly 2011-2012 JW Fulbright Foundation Visiting Professor of Neurosciences and Neuroethics at the Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany.

Prof. Giordano currently serves as Chair of the Neuroethics Program of the IEEE Brain Project, and an appointed member of the Neuroethics, Legal and Social Issues (NELSI) Advisory Panel of the Defense Advanced Research Projects’ Agency (DARPA). He has previously served as Research Fellow and Task Leader of the EU Human Brain Project Sub-Project on Dual-Use Brain Science; an appointed member of United States Department of Health and Human Services Secretary’s Advisory Council on Human Research Protections (SACHRP); and as Senior Science Advisory Fellow of the Strategic Multilayer Assessment Branch of the Joint Staff of the Pentagon.



Further References

Year Citation Score
2020 DeFranco J, Rhemann M, Giordano J. The Emerging Neurobioeconomy: Implications for National Security. Health Security. 18: 267-277. PMID 32816585 DOI: 10.1089/Hs.2020.0009 0.322
2020 Ramirez-Zamora A, Giordano J, Gunduz A, Alcantara J, Cagle JN, Cernera S, Difuntorum P, Eisinger RS, Gomez J, Long S, Parks B, Wong JK, Chiu S, Patel B, Grill WM, et al. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Deep Brain Stimulation Think Tank: Advances in Neurophysiology, Adaptive DBS, Virtual Reality, Neuroethics and Technology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 14: 54. PMID 32292333 DOI: 10.3389/Fnhum.2020.00054 0.33
2019 Shook JR, Giordano J. Ethical Contexts for the Future of Neuroethics. Ajob Neuroscience. 10: 134-136. PMID 31361203 DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2019.1632969 0.328
2018 Giordano J. Looking Ahead: The Importance of Views, Values, and Voices in Neuroethics-Now. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 27: 728-731. PMID 30198475 DOI: 10.1017/S096318011800021X 0.355
2017 Kraft CJ, Giordano J. Integrating Brain Science and Law: Neuroscientific Evidence and Legal Perspectives on Protecting Individual Liberties. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 11: 621. PMID 29167633 DOI: 10.3389/Fnins.2017.00621 0.344
2017 Akram F, Giordano J. Research Domain Criteria as Psychiatric Nosology. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 26: 592-601. PMID 28937340 DOI: 10.1017/S096318011700010X 0.34
2017 DiEuliis D, Giordano J. Why Gene Editors Like CRISPR/Cas May Be a Game-Changer for Neuroweapons. Health Security. 15: 296-302. PMID 28574731 DOI: 10.1089/Hs.2016.0120 0.336
2017 Becker K, Shook JR, Darragh M, Giordano J. A four-part working bibliography of neuroethics: Part 4 – Ethical issues in clinical and social applications of neuroscience. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 12: 1. PMID 28569221 DOI: 10.1186/S13010-017-0043-Y 0.371
2017 Giordano J, Bikson M, Kappenman ES, Clark VP, Coslett HB, Hamblin MR, Hamilton R, Jankord R, Kozumbo WJ, McKinley RA, Nitsche MA, Reilly JP, Richardson J, Wurzman R, Calabrese E. Mechanisms and Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Dose-Response : a Publication of International Hormesis Society. 15: 1559325816685467. PMID 28210202 DOI: 10.1177/1559325816685467 0.329
2016 Wurzman R, Yaden D, Giordano J. Neuroscience Fiction as Eidolá: Social Reflection and Neuroethical Obligations in Depictions of Neuroscience in Film. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 1-21. PMID 27852344 DOI: 10.1017/S0963180116000578 0.313
2016 Martin A, Becker K, Darragh M, Giordano J. A four-part working bibliography of neuroethics: part 3 – “second tradition neuroethics” – ethical issues in neuroscience. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 11: 7. PMID 27646569 DOI: 10.1186/S13010-016-0037-1 0.335
2016 Giordano J. Commentary: The Value of Patient Benefit: Consideration of Framing Contingencies to Guide the Ethical Use of DBS-a Case Analysis. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 25: 755-8. PMID 27634728 DOI: 10.1017/S0963180116000530 0.317
2016 Shats K, Brindley T, Giordano J. Don’t Ask a Neuroscientist about Phases of the Moon. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 25: 712-25. PMID 27634722 DOI: 10.1017/S0963180116000438 0.352
2016 Giordano J. Toward an Operational Neuroethical Risk Analysis and Mitigation Paradigm for Emerging Neuroscience and Technology (NeuroS/T). Experimental Neurology. PMID 27468658 DOI: 10.1016/J.Expneurol.2016.07.016 0.319
2016 Armon E, Kohls NB, Giordano J. On the viability of neurotechnology and mind–body methods in pediatric mental health: Perspectives on integrating new tools to complement old techniques European Journal of Integrative Medicine. 8: 137-140. DOI: 10.1016/J.Eujim.2015.12.011 0.33
2015 Shook JR, Giordano J. Principled research ethics in practice? Reflections for neuroethics and bioethics. Cortex; a Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 71: 423-6. PMID 25935658 DOI: 10.1016/J.Cortex.2015.03.017 0.304
2015 Giordano J, Shook JR. Minding Brain Science in Medicine: On the Need for Neuroethical Engagement for Guidance of Neuroscience in Clinical Contexts Ethics in Biology, Engineering and Medicine: An International Journal. 6: 37-41. DOI: 10.1615/Ethicsbiologyengmed.2015015333 0.315
2014 Buniak L, Darragh M, Giordano J. A four-part working bibliography of neuroethics: part 1: overview and reviews–defining and describing the field and its practices. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 9: 9. PMID 24885037 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-9-9 0.344
2014 Loveless SE, Giordano J. Neuroethics, painience, and neurocentric criteria for the moral treatment of animals. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 23: 163-72. PMID 24495713 DOI: 10.1017/S0963180113000698 0.322
2014 Giordano J, Kulkarni A, Farwell J. Deliver us from evil? The temptation, realities, and neuroethico-legal issues of employing assessment neurotechnologies in public safety initiatives. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics. 35: 73-89. PMID 24442931 DOI: 10.1007/S11017-014-9278-4 0.317
2014 Shook JR, Giordano J. A principled and cosmopolitan neuroethics: considerations for international relevance. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 9: 1. PMID 24387102 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-9-1 0.344
2014 Rossi PJ, Okun M, Giordano J. Translational Imperatives in Deep Brain Stimulation Research: Addressing Neuroethical Issues of Consequences and Continuity of Clinical Care Ajob Neuroscience. 5: 46-48. DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2013.863248 0.311
2013 Giordano J. Ethical considerations in the globalization of medicine–an interview with James Giordano. Bmc Medicine. 11: 69. PMID 23496884 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-69 0.307
2013 Giordano J, Rossi PJ, Benedikter R. Addressing the Quantitative and Qualitative: A View to Complementarity—From the Synaptic to the Social Open Journal of Philosophy. 3: 1-5. DOI: 10.4236/Ojpp.2013.34A001 0.358
2013 Rossi PJ, Novotny P, Paulick P, Plischke H, Kohls NB, Giordano J. Decision Technologies in Medical Research and Practice: Practical Considerations, Ethical Implications, and the Need for Dialectic Evaluation Ethics in Biology, Engineering and Medicine. 4: 91-102. DOI: 10.1615/Ethicsbiologyengmed.2013008091 0.305
2013 Giordano J. Unpacking neuroscience and neurotechnology – Instructions not included: Neuroethics required Neuroethics. 6: 411-414. DOI: 10.1007/S12152-011-9150-4 0.373
2012 Kawa S, Giordano J. A brief historicity of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: issues and implications for the future of psychiatric canon and practice. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 7: 2. PMID 22243976 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-7-2 0.331
2011 Jotterand F, Giordano J. Transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep brain stimulation and personal identity: ethical questions, and neuroethical approaches for medical practice. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon, England). 23: 476-85. PMID 22200137 DOI: 10.3109/09540261.2011.616189 0.316
2011 Kohls N, Sauer S, Offenbächer M, Giordano J. Spirituality: an overlooked predictor of placebo effects? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 366: 1838-48. PMID 21576141 DOI: 10.1098/Rstb.2010.0389 0.34
2011 Giordano J, Benedikter R. The shifting architectonics of pain medicine: toward ethical realignment of scientific, medical and market values for the emerging global community–groundwork for policy. Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass.). 12: 406-14. PMID 21332927 DOI: 10.1111/J.1526-4637.2011.01055.X 0.335
2010 Benedikter R, Giordano J, Fitzgerald K. The future of the self-image of the human being in the Age of Transhumanism, Neurotechnology and Global Transition Futures. 42: 1102-1109. DOI: 10.1016/J.Futures.2010.08.010 0.313
2010 Giordano J, Hutchison PJ, Benedikter RAJ. Culture, Sustainability, and Medicine in the Twenty-first Century. Re-grounding the Focus of Medicine Amidst the Current “Global Systemic Shift” and the Forces of the Market: Elements for a Contemporary Social Philosophy of Medicine International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society. 23: 29-41. DOI: 10.1007/S10767-009-9085-5 0.313
2009 Giordano J, Akhouri R, McBride D. Implantable nano-neurotechnological devices: consideration of ethical, legal, and social issues and implications. Journal of Long-Term Effects of Medical Implants. 19: 83-93. PMID 20402632 DOI: 10.1615/Jlongtermeffmedimplants.V19.I1.80 0.321
2009 Giordano J. Quo vadis? Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine preserving the humanistic character of medicine in a biotechnological future. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine : Pehm. 4: 12. PMID 19682382 DOI: 10.1186/1747-5341-4-12 0.401
2009 Giordano J, Engebretson JC, Benedikter R. Culture, subjectivity, and the ethics of patient-centered pain care. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : Cq : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees. 18: 47-56. PMID 19091145 DOI: 10.1017/S0963180108090087 0.306
2009 Loveless S, Giordano J. Erlebnis, Erwartung und Ethik (Experience, Expectation, and Ethics) Neuroethics. 2: 113-113. DOI: 10.1007/S12152-009-9035-Y 0.359
2008 Giordano J, Ives JA, Jonas WB. Hormetic responses in neural systems: consideration, contexts, and caveats. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 38: 623-7. PMID 18709570 DOI: 10.1080/10408440802026356 0.31
2008 Giordano J. Complementarity, brain-mind, and pain. Forschende Komplementarmedizin (2006). 15: 71-3. PMID 18496019 DOI: 10.1159/000121106 0.317
2007 Ives JA, Giordano J. Unusual claims, normative process: on the use and stringency of the scientific method. Complementary Medicine Research. 14: 138-139. PMID 17596693 DOI: 10.1159/000103287 0.339
2007 Giordano J, O’Reilly M, Taylor H, Dogra N. Confidentiality and Autonomy: The Challenge(s) of Offering Research Participants a Choice of Disclosing Their Identity Qualitative Health Research. 17: 264-275. PMID 17220396 DOI: 10.1177/1049732306297884 0.331
2006 Giordano J, Engebretson J. Neural and cognitive basis of spiritual experience: biopsychosocial and ethical implications for clinical medicine. Explore (New York, N.Y.). 2: 216-25. PMID 16781644 DOI: 10.1016/J.Explore.2006.02.002 0.339
2005 Giordano J, Engebretson J, Garcia MK. Challenges to complementary and alternative medical research: focal issues influencing integration into a cancer care model. Integrative Cancer Therapies. 4: 210-8. PMID 16113028 DOI: 10.1177/1534735405279179 0.33
2004 Giordano J, Garcia MK, Strickland G. Integrating Chinese traditional medicine into a U.S. public health paradigm Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 10: 706-710. PMID 15353031 DOI: 10.1089/Acm.2004.10.706 0.336
2003 Giordano J, Garcia MK, Boatwright D, Klein K. Complementary and alternative medicine in mainstream public health: A role for research in fostering integration Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 9: 441-445. PMID 12816632 DOI: 10.1089/107555303765551660 0.321

Neuroweapons & neurohacking (dual-use neuroscience)

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Janus, Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings, and endings, and Bellona, Roman goddess of war. Sculpture by Johann Wilhelm Beyer, 1773-80 CE, Vienna, Schönbrunn Garden.

 

Why Gene Editors Like CRISPR/Cas May Be a Game-Changer for Neuroweapons

“This year marks the Eighth Review Conference (RevCon) of the Biological Toxins and Weapons Convention (BWC). At the same time, ongoing international efforts to further and more deeply investigate the brain’s complex neuronal circuitry are creating unprecedented capabilities to both understand and control neurological processes of thought, emotion, and behavior. These advances have tremendous promise for human health, but the potential for their misuse has also been noted, with most discussions centering on research and development of agents that are addressed by existing BWC and Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) proscriptions. In this article, we discuss the dual-use possibilities fostered by employing emergent biotechnologic techniques and tools—specifically, novel gene editors like clustered regular interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)—to produce neuroweapons. Based on our analyses, we posit the strong likelihood that development of genetically modified or created neurotropic substances will advance apace with other gene-based therapeutics, and we assert that this represents a novel—and realizable—path to creating potential neuroweapons. In light of this, we propose that it will be important to re-address current categorizations of weaponizable tools and substances, so as to better inform and generate tractable policy to enable improved surveillance and governance of novel neuroweapons.
The authors discuss the dual-use possibilities fostered by employing emergent biotechnologic techniques and tools—specifically, novel gene editors like clustered regular interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)—to produce neuroweapons. They posit the strong likelihood that development of genetically modified or created neurotropic substances will advance apace with other gene-based therapeutics and assert that this represents a novel—and realizable—path to creating potential neuroweapons.”
[…] “In the interim, it is likely that more indirect means of manipulating the brain and behavior will be developed. ‘‘Neurohacking’’ will increase, and biotechnology, such as CRISPR/Cas and novel gene editors, will provide tools to realize production of novel neuroagents with dual-use po-
tential. Simple acknowledgment of these facts, however, is insufficient. It will be essential to pursue and obtain a deeper and fuller understanding of the ways that genetic pathways to human cognitive and behavioral modification can be engaged for dual and direct use as neuroweapons, to
formulate policies based on this level of understanding, and to engage surveillance of the use of these technologies in various silos of development and application, so as to afford both preventive and more preparatory capabilities.”

DiEuliis, D., & Giordano, J.. (2017). Why Gene Editors Like CRISPR/Cas May Be a Game-Changer for Neuroweapons. Health Security, 15(3), 296–302.

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1089/hs.2016.0120
DOI URL
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Janus and his two faces: past and future.

“There is a scientific race for decoding the human brain. current and near future technology will make it possible to not only merely influence the enemy’s mind and behavior, but to actually control it. breakthroughs in neuroscience will enable new types of non-lethal weapons for precise behavioral manipulation, for example through behavior-altering neurotropic drugs, through remote electromagnetic brain monitoring and stimulation, through acoustic weapons beaming voices directly into enemy heads, and even through holographic projections and other ‘complex battlefield illusions.’ within ten years soldiers could be equipped with transcranial magnetic stimulation devices or brain-computer interfaces, which would make it possible for their commanders to steer their emotions and to control their thoughts. this paper will discuss how the emerging sixth domain of warfare (the mind) is likely to transform military operations and profoundly change how wars are conducted. it is argued that military operations will be increasingly centered on achieving desired psychological effects, which will, on the positive side, reduce the need for physical destruction and killing. at the same time, ‘neuroweapons’ will also create new and unprecedented dangers, resulting from misuse and proliferation, which will need to be addressed through development of a concept of ‘neurosecurity’ that will be outlined.”

Krishnan, A.. (2014). From Psyops to Neurowar: What Are the Dangers?. Paper to Be Presented at the ISAC-ISSS Conference in Austin, 14-16 November 2014

Further References

Bruner, R. C., & Lentzos, F.. (2019). Militarising the Mind: Assessing the Weapons of the Ultimate Battlefield. BioSocieties

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1057/s41292-018-0121-4
DOI URL
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Evans, N. G.. (2021). Neuroweapons. In The Ethics of Neuroscience and National Security

Plain numerical DOI: 10.4324/9780429447259-6
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Dando, M.. (2015). Neuroscience and the Future of Chemical-Biological Weapons. Neuroscience and the Future of Chemical-Biological Weapons

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1057/9781137381828
DOI URL
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Dando, M.. (2015). Novel Neuroweapons. In Neuroscience and the Future of Chemical-Biological Weapons

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1057/9781137381828_6
DOI URL
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Giordano, J. J.. (2015). Neurotechnology in National Security and Defense: Practical Considerations, Neuroethical Concerns. Advances in neurotechnology
Dando, M.. (2015). Novel Neuroweapons. In Neuroscience and the Future of Chemical-Biological Weapons

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1057/9781137381828.0013
DOI URL
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Giordano, J., & Wurzman, R.. (2011). Neurotechnologies as weapons in national intelligence and defense – An overview. Neurogenetics
Noll, G.. (2014). Weaponising neurotechnology: International humanitarian law and the loss of language. London Review of International Law

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/lril/lru009
DOI URL
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DeFranco, J., DiEuliis, D., & Giordano, J.. (2020). Redefining Neuroweapons: Emerging Capabilities in Neuroscience and Neurotechnology. PRISM
Nørgaard, K., & Linden-Vørnle, M.. (2021). Cyborgs, Neuroweapons, and Network Command. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies

Plain numerical DOI: 10.31374/sjms.86
DOI URL
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In vivo gene editing

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“In vivo gene editing in post-mitotic neurons of the adult brain may be a useful strategy for treating neurological diseases. Here, we develop CRISPR–Cas9 nanocomplexes and show they were effective in the adult mouse brain, with minimal off-target effects. Using this system to target Bace1 suppressed amyloid beta (Aβ)-associated pathologies and cognitive deficits in two mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease. These results broaden the potential application of CRISPR–Cas9 systems to neurodegenerative diseases.”

Park, H., Oh, J., Shim, G., Cho, B., Chang, Y., Kim, S., … Kim, J.. (2019). In vivo neuronal gene editing via CRISPR–Cas9 amphiphilic nanocomplexes alleviates deficits in mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Neuroscience

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/s41593-019-0352-0
DOI URL
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Further References

Gillmore, J. D., Gane, E., Taubel, J., Kao, J., Fontana, M., Maitland, M. L., … Lebwohl, D.. (2021). CRISPR-Cas9 In Vivo Gene Editing for Transthyretin Amyloidosis. New England Journal of Medicine

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa2107454
DOI URL
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Mills, E. M., Barlow, V. L., Luk, L. Y. P., & Tsai, Y. H.. (2020). Applying switchable Cas9 variants to in vivo gene editing for therapeutic applications. Cell Biology and Toxicology

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10565-019-09488-2
DOI URL
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Park, H., Oh, J., Shim, G., Cho, B., Chang, Y., Kim, S., … Kim, J.. (2019). In vivo neuronal gene editing via CRISPR–Cas9 amphiphilic nanocomplexes alleviates deficits in mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Neuroscience

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/s41593-019-0352-0
DOI URL
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Jordan, B.. (2021). In vivo gene editing for gene therapy. Medecine/Sciences

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2021140
DOI URL
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Yip, B. H.. (2020). Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery strategies. Biomolecules

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3390/biom10060839
DOI URL
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Büning, H., & Schambach, A.. (2021). A first step toward in vivo gene editing in patients. Nature Medicine

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01476-6
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Latella, M. C., Di Salvo, M. T., Cocchiarella, F., Benati, D., Grisendi, G., Comitato, A., … Recchia, A.. (2016). In vivo Editing of the Human Mutant Rhodopsin Gene by Electroporation of Plasmid-based CRISPR/Cas9 in the Mouse Retina. Molecular Therapy – Nucleic Acids

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038/mtna.2016.92
DOI URL
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Li, F., Wing, K., Wang, J. H., Luu, C. D., Bender, J. A., Chen, J., … Hewitt, A. W.. (2020). Comparison of CRISPR/Cas Endonucleases for in vivo Retinal Gene Editing. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience

Plain numerical DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.570917
DOI URL
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Lee, J., Kang, Y. K., Oh, E., Jeong, J., Im, S. H., Kim, D. K., … Chung, H. J.. (2022). Nano-assembly of a Chemically Tailored Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein for in Vivo Gene Editing and Cancer Immunotherapy. Chemistry of Materials

Plain numerical DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.1c02844
DOI URL
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